The Shepherd's Manual. 



A PKACTICAL TREATISE 



ON 



THE SHEEP. 



DESIGNED ESPECIALLY FOR AMERICAN SHEPHERDS. 



HENRY STEWART, 
w 



ILLUSTRATED 



ft-' 




NEW YORK: 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 

245 BROADWAY. 



/9iy(^ 



^L 



S>F376 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876, by the 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE. 

Preface v-vi 

CHAPTER I. 

The Sheep as an Industrial Product 8-11 

Antiquity of Slieep Husbandry— The Future of Sheep 
Husbandry— Its Effects upon Agriculture— Demand for 
Mutton Sheep— Value of the Wool Product— Extent of 
Pasturage in America. 

CHAPTEPw II. 
The Summer Management of a Flock 11- 33 

Selection of a Sheep Farm — Effects of Soils upon the 
Health of Sheep— What is a Good Pasture ?— Value of 
Certain Grasses — The Western Plains as Sheep Pasture — 
Pastures — Fodder Crops — Root Crops— Folding Sheep — 
Dog Guards. 

CHAPTER III. 
Management of Ewes and Lambs 33- 49 

Marking Sheep — Record for Breeders— Management of 
Rams— Care of Ewes— Care of Lambs— Selecting Lambs 
for Breeders — Prevention of Disease — Dipping Preven- 
tive of Parasites. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Winter Management of Sheep 49- 81 

Barns and Sheds — Feed Racks— Feeding Value of Differ- 
ent Fodders, Roots and Grains— Experiments in Feeding — 
Profit of Feeding — Raising Early Lambs for Market — 
Feeding Sheep for Market — Value of Manure — Markets 
for Sheep. 

(3) 



IV THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

CHAPTER V. 

PAGE. 
BBEEDINa AND BREEDS OF SHEEP 81 — 142 

How Breeds are Established — Improvement of Flocks- 
Cross Breeding— Breeding for Sex— Maxims for Breeders 
— Native Breeds — Improvement of the Merinos — The Me- 
rino Fleece— Long- Wool Breeds— Medium and Short-Wool 
Breeds— Foreign Breeds— Cross-bred. Sheep — American 
Cross-breeds. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Structure and Uses of Wool 143-167 

The Method of Growth of Wool — Its Peculiar Structure 
— Its Composition — The Yolk — Classification of Wools — 
Character of Merino Wool — Washing Wool— Shearing — 
Packing and Marketing the Fleeces — Production of Wool 
in the World— Comparative Values of Wool in Different 
Countries — Favorable Conditions for Producing Wool in 
the United States. 

CHAPTER VII. 

The Anatomy and Diseases of the Sheep 16&-249 

Physiology of the Sheep— The Teeth— The Bones- The 
Vital Functions, Respiration, Circulation, and Digestion — 
The Causes and Prevention of Diseases of the Sheep — Dis- 
eases of the Respiratory Organs, of the Digestive Organs, 
of the Blood — Enzootic Diseases — Epizootic Diseases — 
Diseases of the Urinary and Reproductive Organs, of the 
Brain — ^Parasitical Diseases of the Intestines, of the Skin 
— Diseases of the Feet — Diseases incident to Lambing — 
Special Diseases — Diseases of Lambs. 



Table op Appboximatb Equivalent Measures 249 



PREFACE. 



The following Manual is designed to be a hand-book for Amer- 
icaa shepherds and farmers. It is intended to be so plain that a 
farmer, or a farmer's son, who has never kept a sheep, may learn 
from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and to be so 
complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather some 
suggestions from it. When the author, some years ago, began to 
keep sheep, he sought in vain amongst the published works a 
simple practical, comprehensive book upon sheep and sheep-keep- 
ing, suited to his necessities. The excellent works upon the 
Merino and Fine Wool Husbandry by Mr. Randall, were the only 
ones to be obtained that were adapted for the use of an American 
shepherd, and these referred to a special branch of sheep husbandry 
which is becoming every year a less and less prominent one. The 
other books on this subject then extant, were either English works 
or compilations from them, and were out of date and incomplete. 
None of the works gave a description of the modern improved 
breeds of sheep which have of late become so deservedly popular ; 
or any full or satisfactory account of the diseases of sheep, and 
the remedies proper for them under the modern systems of treat- 
ment which have grown out of the more accurate scientific knowl- 
edge of the present day ; nor could any infonnation as to the 
vastly increased scope of this branch of agricultural industry in 
America, be found in any book. It was necessary to learn by 
experience — in this case, as in all others, a costly teacher — how to 
meet the needs of the modern improved sheep in our climate and 
(5) 



VI THE SHEFHERD'S MANUAL. 

under our methods of culture. The results of personal experi- 
ences of some years with the characters of the various modem 
breeds of sheep, and the sheep-raising capabilities of many portions 
of our extensive territory and that of Canada, most of which have 
been visited with a view to the effects upon our sheep of the va- 
rying climate and different soils ; and the careful study of the dis- 
eases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which 
they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents ; as 
well as the methods of management called for under our circum- 
stances, were finally gathered into the shape in which they are here 
presented to the shepherds of America, with the hope that they 
may be as acceptable and useful to them as they would have 
been, when lie first undertook the care of a flock, to 

The Authob. 
New York, Iblti. 



The Shepherd's Manual. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE SHEEP AS AN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT. 

From the earliest ages the sheep has been a source of profit to 
mankind, and its keeping and rearing an important industry. 
Abel, the second son of Adam, chose sheep-herding as his employ- 
ment, and although his elder brother chose to cultivate the soil, 
the pastoral life became the favored occupation of the human race 
in its early periods, and the more toilsome tillage of the ground 
was followed from necessity rather than from choice. With a 
sparse population, a scarcity of labor, but at the same time an 
ample territory, the cultivation of flocks became in early times the 
readiest means of providing food and clothing, increasing the com- 
forts of man and of accumulating transferable wealth. Although 
at first sight it is a singular circumstance, yet on reflection it is 
seen to be a necessity of the case that the territory upon which the 
flocks of the ancient patriarchs were fed and tended, is still the 
home of shepherds, and that there, for forty centuries, flocks have 
wandered from pasture to pasture under the care of their nomadic 
proprietors. Where the physical features of the country were 
favorable to pasturage, there the first civilized occupation was that 
of keeping sheep, and so it remains to this day. 

In view of its bearing upon the future of sheep husbandry in 
the United States, it is important to remember this fact, that where 
peculiarly favorable physical features of the country were present, 
and the shepherd occupied the land, there the shepherd and his 
flock retain possession until this day. Thus, at the time of the 
conquest of Spain by the ancient Romans, that country was cele- 
brated for its flocks and the quality of its wool, and to-day the 



8 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

Spanish Merino is equally celebrated, although through adventi- 
tious circumstances, but chiefly political disturbances, its pre-emi- 
nence has been lost to Spain, and other countries enjoy its fruits. 
As civilization progressed stage by stage, and garments of man- 
ufactured wool displaced those of skins, careful breeding began to 
improve the fleece, and varieties among sheep became fixed in 
type. Before the Christian era the fine wools of Italy were noted, 
and the fineness of the fleece was cultivated to a degree unknown 
to us of the present day. The sheep of that period were housed 
and clothed, their skins were oiled and moistened with wine, and 
their fleeces were combed and washed repeatedly, in order that 
Hhc quality of the wool might be refined as far as possible. Al- 
though this excessive refinement destroyed the vigor and impaired 
the constitution of the sheep, yet their descendants, inferior in 
form, as might be expected, are still fine-wooled sheep. Thus far 
the improvement in sheep operated only towards refining the 
fleece, and the carcass was a secondary object, only cared for so 
far as it could serve as a vehicle for carrying the wool. The lamb 
of the flock was considered a choice morsel, but the mature sheep 
was neglected as an article of food. It is only in recent times that 
the excellence of mutton has been made an object in the improve- 
ment of sheep. At the present it is only in sparsely populated 
countries that sheep are cultivated for wool alone, while in densely 
peopled localities the production of mutton is of greater consider- 
ation than that of wool, or at least is of equal value to it. At the 
present time, proximity to, or distance from market, decides the 
choice of breeds, and in fact this consideration alone has in some 
cases been the moving influence in the creation of new varieties 
or breeds specially adapted to certain localities. In a similar man- 
ner the necessities of sheep-breeders have led them to make some 
important modifications in their methods of agriculture, so that 
while the character of their flocks has been changed for the better, 
their agriculture has been improved, the product of the land in- 
creased, and its value advanced, until profitable sheep culture has 
become synonymous with the most profitable farming. In fact, 
the character of the farm has been indexed by the character of the 
flock reared upon it. This improvement has in greater part oc- 
curred only in connection with the rearing of mutton sheep. To 
feed these heavy bodied sheep profitably, it has been found neces- 
sary to raise large crops of cheap roots and luxuriant green crops ; 
and to raise these crops, the most skillful tillage, the cleanest cul- 
ture, and the most liberal manuring have been requisite. In this 
way the product of the soil has been vastly increased, and the 



PRODUCTION OF MUTTOI^. 9 

sheep, directly and indirectly, has been both the gainer and the 
means of gain. 

The demand for mutton as an agreeable and cheap food is stead- 
ily increasing. The markets of the city of New York alone re- 
quire more than one million sheep per annum. Farmers formerly 
habituated to the daily use of pork are becoming mutton eaters, 
and the convenience of a few sheep upon the farm merely to sup- 
ply the family table is now appreciated to a much greater extent 
than ever before. This cultivation of sheep for mutton alone is a 
branch of agriculture which is yearly becoming more important. 
As yet we possess no native variety of mutton sheep. The carcass of 
the "native" sheep, so called— but which is really a heterogeneous 
mixture of all those breeds which have been brought to this coun- 
try, and which having been permitted to increase promiscuously, 
have perpetuated only their poorest qualities— is unworthy the 
name of mutton ; and those flocks of imported sheep of better 
character, such as the Southdowns, Leicesters, or Cotswolds, are 
either allowed to deteriorate, or are kept for breeding purposes. 
It is very true that a really good carcass of mutton rarely finds its 
way to our markets, except from Canada, where almost the sole 
attention is given to breeding sheep for mutton. At the same time 
there is a demand for mutton, both of that substantial kind which 
is represented by legs of 16 to 30 lbs. in weight, handsome saddles 
and good shoulders, and that more delicately flavored kind repre- 
sented by the small legs or quarters of the Welsh sheep. 

Unfortunately this fact is not generally known to farmers, and 
if it were, it is equally unfortunate that we as yet have not the 
kind of sheep to meet the demand. Before this excellent and 
wholesome food can become as popular as it ought to be, and 
sheep keeping can become as profitable as it may be, farmers must 
be better informed as to the character of the sheep needed, the 
manner in which they may be bred, and the methods by which 
they may be fitted for the market. This necessary information 
must include a knowledge of the modern breeds which have 
usurped the place of the old kinds, and the peculiar management 
of the new races of sheep, as well as of the special crops needed 
for fodder, and the methods of cultivating them. Heretofore in 
place of this practical information, American farmers have been 
treated to long dissertations upon the origin and history of the 
sheep, and descriptions of foreign breeds which are of no possible 
value or interest to them. 

The sheep, in addition to its value as a food producer, yields to 
its owner an annual tribute in the shape of its fleece, which in the 



10 THE SHEIHEKD'S MANUAL. 

aggregate is a most important contribution to the comfort and in- 
dustry of the people. In 1870 there were nearly 30 millions of 
sheep in the United States, and the wool production in that year 
amounted to 120 million pounds, estimating the average weight of 
the fleeces at 4 pounds each. The value of this wool in the farm- 
ers' hands would reach at the lowest estimate, $40,000,000. But so 
far from being anywhere equal to the demand for this staple, the 
supply was less than our yearly needs by a quantity equal to a 
value of more than $40,000,000, and wool to this amount is annu- 
ally imported from foreign countries. Besides this in wool, there 
is annually imported with it the value of $20,000,000 in foreign la- 
bor, which has been expended in manufacturing wool into cloth 
and other woolen goods. Our own necessities, therefore, demand 
an increase in the supply of wool equal to our present production. 
This wool, if produced here, would not only use up a large quan- 
tity of com now thrown upon the markets of the world, and 
therefore enhance the value of that which would remain for dis- 
posal ; but its manufacture into cloths and goods would employ a 
large number of persons who are now engaged in raising agricul- 
tural products for sale, and are therefore in active competition 
with other farmers. The encouragement of sheep cultivation, 
therefore, has a national importance, and is a subject which bears 
directly upon the interests of farmers. To increase the wool pro- 
duct to a par with the necessities of the country at the present 
time, would alone involve the passage through their hands of 
$60,000,000 yearly — an immense sum, which now goes into the 
pockets of foreigners, instead of those of our own people. 

The scope for an increase in our wool product is comparatively 
boundless. A full third of the territory of the United States is a 
grand sheep pasture of the most favorable character. Yast plains 
bearing abundance of the most nutritious herbage, in the most 
healthful climate, and the very best conditions for the profitable 
breeding of fine and middle wool sheep, and which are valueless 
for any other than pastoral purposes, stretch from the 100th me- 
ridian for 500 miles west to the Rocky Mountains, and from north 
to south for 1,500 miles. In addition to this vast tract, upon which 
a hundred million sheep could feed and thrive with ease, there are 
immense mountain ranges, extensive valleys, and again beyond 
these, great plains, altogether covering a still larger area, of which a 
great portion is admirably fitted for the pasturing of sheep. With 
so great a scope for the cheap production of wool, it seems to be 
a strange thing, that instead of exporting largely of this staple, as 
we might and should do, the United States on the contrary is one 



PKODUCTION OF WOOL. 11 

of the largest buyers in foreign markets. Again, on the Atlantic 
seaboard there are millions of acres of land now useless that would, 
if cleared and cultivated, make excellent sheep farms for the pro- 
duction of the choicest mutton sheep. There are numberless salt 
marshes upon which sheep, naturally fitted through long years of 
adaptation for just such pasturage, could be made to yield mutton 
of the most delicate flavor. There are also hills and rocky moun- 
tains upon whose sweet herbage hardy races of sheep could be 
made to thrive with profit ; and further inland, highly cultivated 
farms, where heavy crops of green fodder and roots could be raised, 
that might carry flocks of large framed sheep, yielding combing 
wool — now so much used in clothing materials for both sexes, 
and the demand for which is always ahead of the supply. And 
further south, where it is possible to pasture sheep the year 
round, but where those which are now kept are so neglected 
that some of them are never shorn, there is also, vast room to 
change the overdone cotton production for the equally easy but 
more profitable production of wool which in that climate, by the 
exercise of proper care, may be grown of the finest quality of 
staple. What a vast field opens upon our view when we consider 
the extent of the territory which we possess suitable for sheep cul- 
ture ; and what profit and increase of national wealth is there in 
this business to those who undertake it as the occupation of their 
lives — not only for a short period and intermittingly, and then to 
be abandoned for some other temporary speculative business — but 
with a desire and determination to succeed through the exercise 
of patience, perseverance, and skill. 



CHAPTER 11. 

SUMMER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

The selection of a suitable farm should be the first care of a 
person who intends to devote his time and capital to the rearing 
of sheep. To become a successful shepherd, requires that a person 
should have a liking for the business, and possess tact, patience, 
and perseverance sufficient to resist the temptations which may 
arise at seasons of depression to abandon it for some other tempo- 
rarily more promising pursuit. Having a determination to stick 



12 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

to his flock, he must have a farm suited to its special needs or it 
will not thrive. Sheep cannot bear damp ; and undrained pastures 
are fatal to their welfare. Luxuriance of herbage is not generally- 
favorable unless the land is heavily stocked and the pasture kept 
short and closely cropped. Old permanent meadows, in which a 
variety of grasses are found, are better than artificial meadows 
w^hich form part of a rotation with other crops. With a portion 
of such permanent meadow, there may be many cultivated crops 
grown upon the other portions of the farm upon which the sheep 
may be folded with benefit both to themselves and the land. 

The land most suitable for sheep is one that is naturally drained, 
with a sandy loam or gravelly soil and subsoil, and which bears 
spontaneously short, fine, herbage, largely mixed with white clover. 
It should be rolling, and may be hilly in character rather than flat 
and level. Any low spots or hollows in which aquatic or marsh 
plants grow, are very objectionable, and should be thoroughly 
drained. One such spot upon an otherwise admirable farm may 
infect a flock with deadly disease. No domestic animal is more 
readily afiected by adverse circumstances than the sheep, and none 
has less spirit or power to resist them. Virgil, the ancient poet, a 
close observer of such matters, says of them, " Oves semper infelix 
pecus,'' (Sheep are always an unhappy flock), and many shepherds 
since his day have found reason to hold the same belief. But the 
experienced sheepmaster has no fear on this score. He knows 
that a reputation for success with sheep is *' never gained without 
merit, nor lost without deserving," and that failure is not want 
of luck, as is so frequently declared, but the consequence of ignor- 
ance or bad management. The careful shepherd will not wait 
to cure, he is prompt to prevent ; and eveiy defeat is made a new 
lesson for study and an example for future avoidance. It is by 
long experience that shepherds have learned that the first requi- 
site for success in their business is, the choice of a farm upon which 
their flocks will enjoy perfect health, and that dryness of soil and 
of air is the first necessity for their well being. By a careful and 
judicious choice in this respect, most of the ills to which sheep are 
subject, with all their contingent losses to their owners, are 
avoided. 

The character of the soil upon which sheep are pastured has a 
great influence in modifying the character of the sheep. Upon 
the kind of soil of course depends the character of the herbage 
upon which the flock feeds. Certain soils, such as those consist- 
ing of decomposed granite or feldspar, and which are rich in pot- 
ash, are not generally favorable for sheep. Even turnips raised on 



OK SOILS. 13 

such lands sometimes affect the sheep injuriously, producing dis- 
ease under which they waste away, become watery about the eyes, 
fall in about the flanks, and assume a generally unhealthy appear- 
ance. Upon removal to a limestone, or a dry sandstone soil, sheep 
thus affected, improve at once and rapidly recover. The lambs, 
as might be expected, are most easily affected, and many are yearly 
lost by early death upon lands of an unfavorable character. > As 
a rule, lands upon which granite, feldspathic or micaceous rocks 
intrude, or whose soils are derived from the degradation of such 
rocks, should be avoided by the shepherd. Such soils are, however, 
not without their uses, and fortunately are excellently adapted to 
the dairy. IThe soils most to be preferred are sandstone and lime- 
stone lands, of a free, dry, porous character, upon which the finer 
grasses flourish. The soils which are derived from rocks called 
carboniferous, which accompany coal deposits, or are found in the 
regions in which coal is mined, are those upon which sheep have 
been bred with the most success. The original home of the Lei- 
cester sheep, as well as that of the famous Shropshires, is on the red 
sandstone ; the Lincoln is raised on the alluvial soils based on 
limestone ; the Cotswold has had its home for centuries on the 
limestone Cotswold hills ; the Southdown, Hampshiredown, and 
Oxforddowns, are native to the chalk hills and downs of southern 
England ; the Scotch Cheviot and the hardy black-faced Scotch 
sheep thrive on sandstone hills and mountains of trap rocks which 
rise amongst them ; the fine wools of Yorkshire are produced on 
magnesian limestone soils ; and to come to our own soils, we find 
the American Merino reaching perfection on the limestone hills of 
Vermont, beneath which fine marbles are quarried. Unfortu- 
nately this is the only instance we possess of having given a local 
habitation to a race of sheep in America ; but how soon we shall 
have produced or acclimated several breeds of sheep, which will 
take their peculiarities from the locality in which they are bred 
and raised, is only a question of time. Peat or marsh lands are 
unfavorable for sheep farms. Salt marshes near the coast, how- 
ever, may be excepted from this general condemnation, as the 
saline herbage acts as a specific against some of the parasitic dis- 
eases — the liver-rot mainly — to which sheep are subject upon 
marshy pastures. The Romney-marsh sheep of England are bred 
successfully upon the alluvial soils of reclaimed marshes, and pro- 
duce good wool and a heavy carcass. The gigantic Lincoln, the 
largest sheep bred, originated and thrives in perfection upon 
drained alluvial soils. 
The dry, friable nature and porous character of the soil has as 



14 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

much to do with the health and growth of sheep as the geological 
character of the rocks upon which it is based, or from which it has 
been derived. The census returns of England show that the high- 
est percentage of sheep to the 100 acres, is found precisely where 
the soil is naturally drained and dry, g,nd the lowest, where clay 
abounds, and damp, cold soils with rank, coarse herbage are gen- 
eral. In our own country, although the time has been far too 
short as yet for this condition to operate largely, we find the same 
fact curiously developed, and Ohio and western Pennsylvania, 
with their extensive coal bearing formations underlying dry roll- 
ing fields, possess more sheep than any other district, while New 
York, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, which cover an extensive 
deposit of limestones and sandstones, with naturally dry soils, come 
next on the list. The vast stretch of prairies in the Mississippi 
Valley, and of plains west of the Missouri to the Rocky Moun- 
tains, chiefly underlaid with limestones and sandstones, and especi- 
ally remarkable for a dry, porous soil, which bears a rich carpet 
of the best sheep pastures in the world, have already proved them- 
selves to be well adapted to the successful growth of flocks bear- 
ing fine and medium wools. The rich alluvial valleys of the east- 
ern rivers where naturally or artificially drained, have been found 
to be fitted for the production of large bodied sheep bearing the 
lustrous combing wools. All these localities with the hills and 
valleys of the Middle States will in course of time have their flocks 
suitable in character to the circumstances in which they are kept. 
But it will only be in consequence of persistence in careful breed- 
ing and culture, that the final type for each locality will be 
reached ; for while the effects of soil and locality are unavoidable 
and imperative, the shepherd must be able to discover these effects 
and aid in giving them their due development if early success is 
to be secured. But in whatever locality it may be, if the soil 
is not naturally drained, profitable sheep farms may be sought/ 
in vain. The protit from sheep raising as a special business will/.j 
not permit of high-priced lauds. Where sheep are kept only as ajj 
branch of general farming, it may pay to drain the soil artificially ;j/ 
but without drainage, natural or artificial, sheep cannot thriveJ 
The sheep must ham a dry foot or disease follows. ' 

Tlie character of the herbage depends upon that of the soil, and 
the character of the sheep is governed by that of the pasture. It 
is a very casual observer who thinks that all kinds of grass aie the , 
same, and are equally proper for sheep. The sheep itself 
knows better than this, and every shepherd has learned that 
his sheep will seek particular spots in preference to others in the 



ON PASTURES. 15 

same field. It has been well said that *' the dead earth and the 
living animal are but links of the same chain of natural existences, 
the plant being the connecting bond by which they are tied to- 
gether." The flesh and wool of the sheep, therefore, are but pro- 
ducts from the soil, and contain nothing but what has existed in 
the plants which the sheep have consumed. When wool is clean 
and dry, 100 pounds of it contain 17 pounds of nitrogen, and 5 
pounds of sulphur. When the pasture is sufficiently nutritious 
and the sheep is in good health, a quantity of soapy, greasy matter, 
called yolk, adheres to the fleece. When this is abundant it is a 
proof that the food of the sheep is healthful and sufficient. When 
it is deficient, and the wool is harsh and dry to the touch, it is a 
sign that the sheep's health is sufi'ering from defective nutriment. 
This yolk contains a large proportion of potash. To be properly 
nutritious, the food must contain this needed sulphur and pot- 
ash, along with nitrogen and other necessary matters. A fair test 
of the requisite quality of the food of the sheep may be taken from 
the composition of the flesh and blood of the animal, for there is 
nothing in the flesh, skin, bones, or wool that does not exist in 
the blood. The following are the inorganic or mineral materials 
contained in the ash of the blood and flesh of an animal : 

Blood. Flesh. 

Phosphate of Soda 16.77 45.10 

Chloride of Sodium 59.34 ) akqa 

Chloride of Potassium 6.12 j ^^'^^ 

Sulphate of Soda 3.85 trace 

Phosphate of Magnesia 4.19 ) 

Oxide and Phosphate of Iron 8.28 V 6.84 

Sulphate of Lime 1.45 ) 

100.00 97^88 

The bones of the sheep contain from 60 to 70 per cent of phos 
pliate and carbonate of lime, with a little magnesia. The excre- 
ment, both solid and liquid, of the sheep contain a large variety of 
mineral elements, which are also necessary to the healthful animal 
economy. The urine contains two per cent of mineral matter, 
and the dung 13^ per cent, the composition of which is as follows : 

ASH OF UKINE. 

Sulphate of Potash 2.98 

Sulphate of Soda 7.72 

Chloride of Sodium 32.01 

Chloride of Potassium 12.00 

Carbonate of Lime 82 

Carbonate of Soda 42.25 

Carbonate of Magnesia 46 

Phosphate of Lime, Magnesia, and Iron 70 

SUica L06 

100.00 



IG THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

ASH OF DUNG. 

Silica 50.11 

Potash 8.3a 

Soda ^-28 

Chloride of Sodium 14 

Phosphate of Iron 3.9b 

Lime 18.15 

Maonesia ^-^5 

Phosphoric Acid *^-^^ 

Sulphuric Acid '-^-"9 

99.64 

When it is seen how much earthy matter is needed to build up 
a healthy organism, and supply the waste of the sheep, it is evi- 
dent that the food must be of a character consistent with these 
demands, and if by reason of deficiency in the soil, these matters 
are not supplied, the animal suffers, or is not fully developed. The 
grasses or other herbage upon which the sheep subsist, must there- 
fore be such as will supply the peculiar needs of the animal, or 
they must be supplemented by additional food. When sheep feed 
upon grasses deficient in the required earthy matters, they become 
w^eak in constitution, and predisposed to disease. To prevent dis- 
ease and keep the flock in health, the pasture must be supple- 
mented by other feed which will supply the deficiency, and thus 
the cost of maintaining the flock is increased. A pasture that will 
supply all the necessary nutriment must contain those varieties of 
grasses that have been found by experience most suitable for 
sheep. Of the common grasses there are several varieties which 
have a high reputation for this purpose. The best of these are of 
a low growth and creeping habit, with fine, short herbage. The 
grasses known as P7dcyjn pratense, {Timothy); Arrhcnntherum ave- 
jiaceum, (Tall Oat Grass); Poa ajunia, (Annual Spear Grass); 
Poa pratensis^ (Kentucky Blue Grass) ; Festuca ovina, (Sheep's Fes- 
cue) ; Poa sej'otina, (False Red-Top) ; AgrosUs mdgaris, (Red-Top) ; 
Daciylis glomerata, (Orchard Grass,) when closely pastured ; Alope- 
curus pratensis, (Meadow Foxtail,) with TrifoUum repens^ (White 
Clover) ; or Planiago lanceolata, (the Narrow-leaved Plantain or Rib 
Grass,) and some other common plants, form a desirable herbage 
for sheep. The Buffalo Grass and the species of Boutelout, com- 
monly called mesquit grasses of tlie west, with the large variety of 
leguminous wild plants, make up a pasture that cannot be excelled. 
The occasional dressing of pastures with bone-dust, salt, and sul- 
phate of lime, is of great service, and furnishes a supply of those 
mineral matters which are indispensable. 
The value of the different pasture grasses are shown by the fol- 



VALUE OF VARIOUS GRASSES. 



17 



lowing table of analyses made by Professor "Way. These are of 
the green, fresh plants as taken from the field when in full growth. 

COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GRASSES, (100 PARTS,) TAKEN FRESH 
FROM- THE FIELD. 



NAMES OF GRASS. 



Sweet-Scented Vernal, 

(A nthoxantkum odoratum) 

Meadow Foxtail, 

( Alopecurus pratensis) 

Tail Oat Grass, 

{Arrhenatherum avenaceum) 

Yellow Oat Grass, 

{Avena flavescens) 

Quaking Grass, 

{Briza media) 

Orchard Grass. 

{Dactylis gUmierata) 

Hard Fescue, 

{Festuca duriuscula) 

Timothy, 

(Phleum pratense) 

Blue Grass, 

{Poa pratensis) 

White Clover, 

{Trifolium repens) 

Narrow-leaved Plantain, Rib Grass, 

(Plantago lanceolata) 



i 




12 

1 


Carbonaceous or 

heat producing 

matters. 


1 
1 


80.35 


2.05 


.67 


8.54 


7.15 


80.20 


2.44 


.52 


8.59 


6.76 


72.65 


3.54 


.87 


11.21 


9.37 


60.40 


2.96 


1.04 


18.66 


14.22 


51.85 


2.92 


1.45 


22.60 


17.00 


70.00 


4.06 


.94 


13.30 


10.11 


69.33 


3.70 


1.02 


12.46 


'11.83 


57.21 


4.86 


1.50 


22.85 


11.32 


67.14 


3.41 


.86 


14.15 


12.49 


79.71 


3.80 


.89 


8.14 


5.38 


84.78 


2.18 


.56 


6.06 


5.10 



1.55 
2.36 
2.73 
4.17 
1.59 
1.66 
2.26 
1.95 
2.08 
1.32 



Several of these grasses — the oat grasses, quaking grass, orchard 
grass, timothy, and blue grass, for instance — are seen to be of high 
nutritive value, but yet some of the other grasses and plants found 
in good pastures are not to be despised on account of their seem- 
ingly defective character as shown by these analyses. Some of the 
less nutritious kinds are greedily eaten by sheep, and in furnishing 
a change of diet, as well as by reason of their aromatic properties, 
help to stimulate the appetite and preserve the health. 

Besides the grasses and other plants mentioned, there are sev- 
eral having an aromatic or astringent character, which are pur- 
posely introduced into pastures for their medicinal effect upon the 
sheep. Parsley, Ynrrow, and Wormwood are the plants chiefly 
soused. Parsley, (6'arwm Petroselinum, or Petroselinum sativum^ 
of the older authors), is a biennial plant well known as a garden 
herb. It is greedily eaten by sheep, and acts upon the liver and 
kidneys, or is so supposed to act ; for this reason it has been con- 
sidered and recommended by shepherds as a preventive of those 



18 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

diseases known as " rot," and red water. Hares and rabbits, which 
are also subject to the rot, and the presence of the accompanying 
parasite, the " liver fluke," will travel long distances in quest of 
this herb, and ground upon which it abounds will very soon be 
eaten bare by them. For these reasons it is usual in England to 
sow one pound of seed per acre in permanent pastures where it 
reproduces itself from seed. It is a biennial plant seeding the 
second year of its growth. 

Yarrow, {Achillea Millefolium), a plant of the order to which 
chamomile belongs, is a jjerenuial bitter astringent herb natural- 
ized in this country from Europe. Sheep are greedily fond of it, 
and it is not to be doubted that this instinctive desire is prompted 
by a natural need for it, not so much as a food, but as a medicine 
and a tonic. It is usually sown in out of the way places on the 
borders of pastures or lanes to which sheep have access, and where 
they can go when instinctively desirous of the plant without being 
driven, and so that it may not become troublesome as a weed by 
unduly spreading in the pasture. It thrives best on sandy banks 
or the hilly borders of woods upon sandy soil. The Ox Eye 
Daisy, {ChrysantJiemum Leucanthemum), a plant of the same botan- 
ical order with the Yarrow, is also readily fcropped by sheep, the 
blossoms being especially attractive to lambs. Another related 
plant, the well known Mugwort, {Artemisia vulgaris), sometimes, but 
improperly, called wormwood, also naturalized here from Europe, 
is greedily eaten by sheep. It is also bitter and aromatic and tonic 
rather than nutritive. But these aromatic plants must not be sup- 
posed to be worthless as food, for the analysis of yarrow shows it 
to be possessed of nutritive qualities ; 100 parts of the dry herb 
contain, according to Professor Way, as follows : 

ANALYSIS OF YARROW. 

Albuminoids or Flesh Formers 10.34 per cent. 

Fatty Matters 2.51 " " 

Carbonaceous or Heat Producing Matters. . . .45.46 " " 

Woody Fiber 32.69 " " 

Ash... ^ " " 

100.00 " " 
Amongst other common plants readily eaten by sheep is goose- 
foot, or " Lamb's-quarters," {Ghenopodium album), which grows 
plentifully all over our states and territories, being one of the most 
common weeds upon newly broken prairies west of the Missis- 
sippi, and whi(!h belongs to the same botanical order of plants as 
the beet and the mangel wurtzel. In addition there are several 
varieties of sea weed and other maritime plants which grow upon 



GRASSES OF THE PLAINS. 19 

the shores that are useful for the subsistence of sheep. These 
plants are rich in the mineral constituents of common salt, in 
starch and albumen, and in some localities, flocks of sheep upon 
the sea coasts and islands exist wholly upon this adventitious pas- 
turage. A notable case is stated in a recent publication, of a large 
flock of several hundred sheep which, for years, has subsisted and 
thrived wholly upon sea weed and wild herbage on an island off 
the coast of Maine, and there are many others in which farmers 
adjacent to the sea coast in that state and other parts of New 
England, subsist their sheep chiefly during the winter upon the 
sea weed which is cast upon the shores. These cases, hov/ever, are 
only valuable as showing how these really hardy and easily accli- 
mated animals may be made to thrive and yield their valuable pro- 
ducts of food and clothing, under the poorest conditions as surely, 
if not with equal profit, as under the most favorable circumstances. 
The value of the herbage which covers the wide plains of the 
west cannot be predicated as yet from any chemical analysis or 
scientiiic examinations. In the light of practical experience we 
do not need these useful aids and helps. The fact that the grasses 
which cover those plains have supported and fattened countless 
millions of bufialo and antelope, and the experience already gained 
in keeping sheep on the plains, are amply suflicient to attest the 
nutritive value of those grasses. The Buffalo-grass, {BucJilo'e doc- 
tyloidas), is one of the most nutritious of all grasses. Its creeping 
root stems are always green and of great sweetness. It is low in 
its habit as suits a pasture for sheep, and furnishes good feeding 
the year round. Stock that have fed upon it without any help from 
other feed have been found in spring fat and in condition for the 
butcher. Meat produced upon this pasture has a delicate flavor, 
is tender, and has solid fat. Milk from cows fed upon it bears a 
cream of the richest character and the highest color. It prefers drj% 
light soils, which are the very best soils for sheep pastures, and 
it forces its roots to a depth, or several feet beneath the surface, 
where it finds moisture even upon the dry plains where the annual 
rain -fall is scarcely equal to 10 inches. One of the several kinds 
called *' Bunch-grass," {Festuca scabrella), is another valuable grass 
common in these regions. It is exceedingly nutritive and cures 
on the stalk, thus affording winter pasture. Other species of Fes- 
tuca are common, " Sheep' s-fescue " already noted, being abun- 
dant. For hay for winter use there are many varieties of highly 
nutritious grass. Indian or Wood-grass, {Sorghum nutans), is four to 
five feet in hight, and is full of a rich, sweet juice, which is very 
palatable and nutritious. There are several other grasses of almost 



20 THE shepherd's makual. 

equal value which enable the flock-master to provide abundant 
supplies of hay to carry his stock over those short periods when 
pasturing is prevented by snow storms. The variety of native 
grasses suitable for sheep pastures is thus seen to be ample, and no 
country in the world is better provided, while few countries are so 
well supplied with them, as are the United States and territories 
over the whole length and breadth of their vast surface. 

The stocking of the pasture must be closely loolicd to. Over- 
stocking causes scarcity of pasture, and a deficient supply of nu- 
triment. It also causes the sheep to take up much sand and earth 
into tlieir stomachs with their food, which gives them an unthrifty 
appearance, and sometimes induces disease and death. Sheep 
pastured on overstocked fields may be recognized by the worn 
condition of their teeth, and cases have occurred in which this test 
has indicated a dilference of two years in their age. Four-year- 
old sheep have exhibited the worn mouths of six-year-olds. Un- 
derstocking is an error on the other side. Unless the pasture is 
closely cropped, the herbage becomes hard, unpalatable, and indi- 
gestible, and the sheep do not thrive upon it. It is a well proved 
adage that " 24 hours' grass is best for a sheep, and 8 days' grass for 
an ox." This indicates that the close bite of a sheep should be 
accommodated by a very close herbage. Tne tender growth of a 
thick, short pasture is precisely what is wanted, and if the flock is 
not numerous enough to keep it short, the field should be divided 
into plots, and those not cropped closely should be pastured down 
by cattle or left to be mowed. For the better stocking of the pas- 
tures it would be well, if practicable, to divide the flock, sorting 
lambs and yearlings from wethers and aged ewes, and putting the 
former upon the best and tenderest pasture. This is a point of 
gre.it importance in the management of a flock, and should be 
done whenever the welfare of the younger or less vigorous sheep 
requires it. Where the range is extensive, and ample pasture is 
provided, any supplementary provision further than an occasional 
feed of com, oats, bran, or oil-meal, is unnecessary. These addi- 
tional foods should be supplied whenever the condition of the pas- 
ture requires it, and constant watchfulness should be exercised to 
discover tlie moment when the pastures fail. It is not that the 
growth of the sheep is arrested then, but the quality of the wool 
suffers from the moment that the condition of the sheep begins to 
deteriorate. The secretion which supplies the matter of which 
the wool is formed, is then lessoned, and the fiber is weakened at 
that particular spot. If the adverse condition continues for some 
days or weeks, the weakened fiber forms what is called a " break" 



SUPPLY OF WATER. 21 

in the wool. When the wool comes to be carded or combed, the 
tension overcomes the resistance of the fiber which breaks at this 
weak spot, and the broken fibers go to waste, " Break " in the 
wool greatly reduces its value, and as it is wholly caused by defi- 
cient nourishment or excessive exposure, it is a loss readily avoided 
by proper care. Tiie extra supply of food must be judiciousl}'- 
proportioned to the needs of the sheep, as over supply will result 
in an equal disadvantage by unduly stimulating the condition and 
leading to a reaction when the stimulus is withdrawn. Evenness 
in the fleece, although it may be of poor quality, is better than un- 
evenness, for even if there be only one short break in a fiber 
otherwise of general excellence, the whole is reduced by this single 
break to one-half its proper length. One neglect of a few days 
duration is really worse for the fleece than comparatively poor 
feeding, if it is only adhered to with regularity. Poor feeding and 
general care, result in a gradually diminished growth and weight 
of fleece, but yet may not aff'ect the health, while irregular feed- 
ing affects the health and ruins the flock completely. 

The supply of water is of the greatest importance. A living j 
spring or a clear flowing stream with dry gravelly banks is the j 
best source of supply. Wells are better than ponds or pools. 
Stagnant water is exceedingly objectionable. Hard water is better 
than soft, and water containing much saline or other mineral 
matter, is a valuable help to the pasture as furnishing many neces- 
sary substances. When water is exposed to the atmosphere it 
deposits the greater part of any mineral matter it may contain, 
and becomes soft. It is then rendered of less value for stock pur- 
poses. There are some waters that contain potash, lime, soda, 
magnesia, iron, and sulphur in combination with oxygen, carbonic 
acid, and chlorine to the amount of 15 to 20 grains per gallon, and 
such water is a source of nourishment to sheep. Pond or marsh 
water is highly injurious, as is also running water in which aquatic 
plants are found. It is from drinking such water, as much as from 
pasturing on undrained soils, that the liver flukes, parasites always 
accompanying the disease termed the rot, gain access to the stom- 
ach and intestines of the sheep. A deficiency in the necessary 
mineral matters may be obviated by giving the sheep stated sup- 
plies of a mixture of common salt, sulphur, saltpeter, sulphate of 
magnesia, (epsom salts), phosphate of lime, bone-dust, or fine bone, 
with a small portion of sulphate of iron, (copperas). A small tea- 
spoon ful of this mixture given once a week to each sheep will help / 
greatly to a healthful condition, and resist the tendency to disease 
caused by inferior pasture or soft water. The study of the plants I 



22 THE shepherd's manual. 

suitable for a pasture, tlie character of soils, and the water, should 
be part of the education of every shepherd. 

The exposure of the pasture is another important consideration. 
Long continued cold winds are productive of great discomfort and 
sickness, and often cause serious loss amongst the flock. On the 
sea coast, exposure to the moist sea breezes injures the quality of 
the wool, and renders it harsh and deficient in quantity. Of two 
adjoining flocks upon opposite sides of a hill facing north and 
south, the sheep exposed to the north winds will be several pounds 
less in weight, and their wool will be whiter, harsher, more uneven, 
and less healthy looking, than those of the flock upon the south side. 
This experience is very common. The lambs will also be less 
thrifty. Of this, many notable cases occur every season where 
sheep and lambs are pastured and fed for the markets. The small 
size of sheep raised upon mountain pastures is a case in point. 

Where the pasture is circumscribed or poor, it may be supple- 
mented by sowed green crops to be fed on the ground, or cut and 
fed in racks upon the pasture, or cut and carried to yards and fed 
there at night in racks. Of these, rye, clover, mustard, rape, tares, 
and oats and peas mixed, furnish an abundant supply. Rye is 
sown early in the fall for winter and early spring feeding. For 
this purpose it should be sown thickly, three bushels per acre 
being a fair allowance upon fairly good soil, early in August up 
to the middle of September. The sheep may be turned upon the 
crop in December, and at intervals as may be found proper, up to 
April, when it may be plowed down for a spring crop. Upon 
light lands, where the winters admit of it, as in some of the middle 
and southern states, this may be made an excellent means of im- 
proving the soil ; some additional feed, as bran, pea-meal, com, or 
cotton-seed-meal, (freed from the hull which is indigestible and 
injurious), will much assist in this improvement of the soil as well 
as in bettering the condition of the sheep. 

After rye, clover sown the previous spring, but not pastured, 
will come in turn. This will furnish pasture through the summer 
if kept well stocked down, and a choice portion should be fenced 
off for the lambs. By changing from one part of the field to an- 
other, as one portion is eaten down, the new growth will be tender 
and fresh. After June a part of the clover will run to seed, and 
when the field is plowed in August or September, the seed will 
help to re-sow the ground, which may then be sown to wheat or 
rye. This makes an excellent preparation for these crops on lands 
of a somewhat light character. 

White Mustard, {Sinapis alba), may be sown in May or June for 



FODDER CROPS. 23 

feeding m August and until rye is ready. It is diflQcult to eradi- 
cate from the soil when it once becomes a weed and has been 
allowed to take possession. But a careful farmer will have no 
trouble if he manages the crop so as to prevent the seed beiug 
shed. When sown in August, mustard affords valuable feed dur- 
ing the winter, and although the ground may be covered with 
several inches of snow, the sheep will scrape off the covering and 
get at it. In this way a plot of mustard may furnish a green bite 
all the winter where the snow fall is light. In the spring it should 
be plowed dowm early and not allowed to blossom, and a spring 
crop taken so that the ground is plowed again in the fall. Treated 
thus, the plant cannot ripen and shed its seeds and become trouble- 
some. Mustard has a pungent flavor, and contains a large propor- 
tion of sulphur ; it is on this account a healthful fodder for sheep, 
and is very much relished by them. It belongs to the botanical 
order of Crucrferce, to which the cabbage, rape, and turnip, belong; 
a family of plants rich in sulphur, lime, phosphoric acid, and other 
mineral matter demanded for the sustenance of sheep. Two pecks 
of mustard seed per acre are sown, and for a heavy crop of fodder 
rich soil is required. 

Rape, a variety of Brassica campestris, is a very hardy plant, and 
produces a heavy burden of fodder which is readily eaten by sheep. 
It is very similar in habit to mustard, and should be fed off in the 
fall and winter or early in spring. Two pecks of seed are required 
for an acre. For fall feed it should be sow^n in July or early in 
August. Both mustard and rape succeed very well in the north- 
ern, western, and middle states, and would thrive equally well in 
most of the southern states if sown somewhat later and fed off 
during the winter. These plants when sown late ripen their seed 
early in the second year. 

Turnips are a very frequent fodder crop in those parts of Eng- 
land where sheep are largely raised, but the practice of allowing 
them to be fed off from the ground is fast becoming obsolete, and 
the plan of taking up the crop and cutting and feeding the roots 
in troughs upon the fields or in yards is substituted in its place. 
But the English climate is excessively moist, and rain falls two 
days out of three on the average. It is for this reason, and the in- 
jurious effect upon the sheep of the exposure upon muddy fields 
to cold wintry rains, that the practice is falling into disuse. In 
parts of the United States we have every advantage for making 
use of so cheap and convenient a plan of feeding sheep upon 
these root crops that are not injured by moderate frosts. Where 
the fall of snow is light and soon melts away, as in Virginia, Ten- 



24 THE shephekd's manual. 

nessee, Missouri, and the states south of these, this system of win- 
ter feeding has been practiced for many years by the better class 
of farmers with success. Mr. C. W. Howard, of Georgia, a 
highly trustworthy gentleman, a farmer and a frequent writer 
upon agricultural topics, and who has given much attention to the 
culture of fodder crops, communicated some time ago to the Rural 
Carolinian the following directions and facts in regard to the cul- 
ture of turnips for sheep feeding in the open field in the south : 
" Take a field, plow it deeply with a two-horse plow, subsoil if 
possible, harrow thoroughly and roll. Lay off the land in rows 
two-and-a-half feet apart, with a wide and deep furrow. If there 
be not stable manure, apply three to five hundred pounds of Am- 
moniated Superphosphate of Lime ; the addition of some potash 
would be useful ; throw the dirt back with two furrows, and level 
the ridge with a board. Use the Weathersfield drill, or some 
other, costing about nine dollars. Sow with it two pounds of seed 
to the acre. The Weathersfield drill opens the furrow, drops the 
seed, covers, and then rolls it by one and the same process. When 
the plants have formed the third leaf, which is rough, thin them 
out with the hoe and hand to about eight inches apart, give them 
a good plowing with a narrow scooter, and the cultivation is 
completed. The cultivation of an acre of turnips will cost as 
follows : 

Plowing $ 2 00 

Harrowing 50 

Boiling 50 

Seed 100 

Sowing 25 

Hoeing and Thinning 2 00 

Plowing 1 00 

Fertilizer 10 00 

$17 25 

" The result will vary according to the soil, the season, and the 
cultivation. Five hundred bushels is a poor crop. One thousand 
bushels is a good crop. Fifteen hundred bushels is an extraordi- 
nary crop. This number of bushels, (1,550), was made last year 
by Dr. Lavender, of Pike County, Ga. That gentleman took the 
premium at the last Georgia State Fair. His statements deserve 
implicit reliance. Tbey were made under oath. His process of 
obtaining this remarkable yield was as follows : 

" ' The soil was a sandy loam. Turned over a heavy clover sod 
in June with a Dixie plow ; harrowed twice with a Nishwitz har- 
row on the 21st of August ; ran twice in the furrow, deposited in 
the bottom of the furrow 3,600 pounds of stable manure, com- 



FOLDIKG OK TURNIPS. 25 

pounded with 100 pounds of the Stono Phosphate ; let it stand six 
weeks, then applied as above stated. Cultivated with a cultivator 
by horse power — no hoeing ; left about six plants to the yard ; 
had only one rain on them after plowing, and that a light shower. 
Sowed two pounds of seed to the acre ; planted by hand through 
a guano bugle, and then rolled.' 

' ' What does it cost to raise a bushel of turnips ? If we make 
500 bushels to the acre, the cost will be about four cents per 
bushel; if 1,000, the cost will be about two cents per bushel. This 
does not include gathering, storing, and marketing, because the 
use that it is proposed to make of the turnips involves none of these 
expenses. 

" What use, then, is to be made of the crop ? Feed them off on 
the land with sheep, the process ordinarily known as folding. 
For this purpose a portable fence is necessary. (These are de- 
scribed hereafter). 

" The fold should not include more turnips than the sheep will 
eat off clean in twenty-four, or, at the utmost, forty-eight hours. 
If it be larger, the turnips will be wasted. Sheep not accustomed 
to turnips, may at first refuse to eat them. But let them get quite 
hungry, and then sprinkle some salt upon the turnips. After they 
once get a taste of them the only difficulty will be to get enough 
of them. One thousand sheep will consume an acre of turnips in 
twenty-four hours ; one hundred in ten days and nights. With 
these data, the size of the pen can be graduated. One- tenth of an 
acre should be the size of the fold or pen per one hundred sheep. 
One acre of turnips will support one hundred sheep for ten days, 
three acres one month, nine acres three months. This is not the- 
ory, but the result of actual experiment. The enemy of the turnip 
is the fly. There are two means of preventing the ravages of this 
troublesome insect. One is very thick seeding, the other is dust- 
ing the young plants as soon as they are above ground, with un- 
leached ashes, or air-slacked lime. After they reach the rough 
leaf there is no further danger from this source. The thinning 
should take place as soon as the rough leaf is formed. If this 
thinnmg is delayed, the crop will be seriously injured." 

For the northern states the culture of the turnip, ruta-baga, su- 
gar beet, mangel, and cabbage, is as follows: the preparation of the 
ground being alike for all, the time of sowing alone being differ- 
ent. Sugar beets and mangels are sown from April to June, 
the early sown crop being invariably the heaviest. Ruta-bagas are 
sown June 15th to July 1st. Cabbage for late crop is sown in 
seed beds in June to be transplanted in July. Yellow Aberdeen 
2 



26 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



turnips are sown in July, and white turnips in July or August. 
The soil is prepared by previous plowing and manuring, and made 
fine and mellow ; the seed is sown in drills 30 inches apart, and 
thinned out to 13 to 18 inches apart in the rows. A crop of roots 
grown 18 inches apart, each root weighing 6 lbs. , will yield 34 tons, 
or 1,100 bushels to 
the acre. For beets 
or mangels, 4 lbs. 
of seed per acre is 
required if sown 
with a drill ; of 
ruta-bagas and tur- 
nips 2 lbs. of seed is 
sown. The best beet 
is Lane's Improved 
Sugar Beet ; the 
best mangel, the 
Long Red ; the 
best ruta-baga, the 

Purple-top Swede ; the Aberdeen turnip is better than the white, 
and nearly as good as the ruta-baga ; the white turnip has the ad- 




Fig. 1.— PIT FOR ROOTS. 




Fig. 3. — ^ROOT-CUTTER. 

vantage that it can be sown late and follow an oat, barley, or rye 
crop. The harvesting is done by cutting off the tops with a sharp 



FEEDING ROOTS. 



27 



hoe and plowing a furrow on one side of the row of roots, when 
they may be pulled from the ground with the hoe or by drawing 
a dull harrow over the field. The crop is saved by keeping the 
roots in cellars or pits. Pits are simply conical heaps covered 
with straw and earth suflBcient to keep out the frost, a foot of 
straw and a few inches of earth being sufficient protection, (see 
fig. 1). Roots should be sliced or pulped when fed, as they are 
more readily eaten, 
and there is no dan- 
ger of the sheep 
choking hy swallow- 
ing too large pieces. 
A simple cutting ma- 
chine is shown in fig. 
2. It consists of a 
wooden wheel fur- 
nished with long 
knives set at an angle 
similar to the irons 
in a plane, which cut 
the roots into thin 
slices. Fig. 3 is a 
pulper in which, in- 
stead of knives, there 
are 144 sharp chisel ^ig- 3.— root pulper. 

points made of quarter-inch steel, (see a), by which the roots are 
torn into shreds and reduced to pulp. 

"When crops are fed upon the ground, a special arrangement of 
temporary fences is used. These are constructed of hurdles, of 
which there are several kinds. One of the most readily con- 
structed hurdles is made of light stakes pointed at the ends and 
fastened together with bars of split or sawed saplings or laths, such 
as are shown at fig. 4. These are made in panels about nine feet 
long, with stakes five and a half feet high. A line of these hurdles 
is set across the field, enclosing a plot in which the sheep are con- 
fined, until the crop on the ground is consumed. The shepherd 
takes a light pointed iron bar with which he makes holes in the 
ground to receive the pointed lower ends of the stakes, and drives 
them down firmly by striking the tops with a wooden mallet. As 
the crop is eaten, the line of hurdles is moved along the field until 
the whole is consumed. Much economy in labor of setting the 
hurdles may be exercised by laying out the plots in a certain man- 
ner. For instance, if a square field of ten acres is to be fed off, the 




28 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



plan shown in fig. 5 will be found very convenient. The distance 
across the field is 320 yards. This is the least length of hurdles 
that can be used. But if the field is divided off into strips across, 
the whole of the hurdles must be moved each time, and if the field 




a 



Fig. 4. — HURDLE. 

is divided into eight strips, there will be seven removals of every 
hurdle, or the whole length of netting. In the plan here shown, 
only half this work is necessary, and a field may be divided into 
eight sections by moving half the hurdles seven times. For in- 
stance, plot 1 is fed by placing the 
hurdles from a to 6, and from c to d. 
Plot number 2 is fed by moving the 
line from c, d to &, e. The next setting 
of the hurdles is from c to /, the next 
from h to g^ the next from h to z, the 
next from 6 to A;, the next, and last, 
from I to m. There will be eight 
settings of 110 yards each, instead of 
seven of 220 yards each, which would 
be necessary should the field be fed off 
in the usual manner of strips across it. 

In place of these hurdles, netting of cocoa-nut fiber or hempen 
cord is often used. This is supported by stakes driven into the 
ground and hooks, (see fig. 6). Netting of this kind is made in 



4 
h 



6 4 



7 



m 



\k 



d 



e 



Fig. 5.— PLAN FOR SETTING 
HURDLES. 



PORTABLE FENCES. 



29 



England in lengths of 100 yards, and widths of 4 feet, at about $9 
the°100 yards. At this price it could he imported with profit, and 
probably cheaper than it could be manufactured here. Another 
form of hurdles not quite so portable, but more easily moved and 
set is illustrated at fig. 7. They are 12 feet long, and are made of 
a stout pole bored with two series of holes 12 inches apart. Stakes 
six feet long are put into these holes, so that they project from 
them three feet on each side of the pole. One series of holes is 
bored in a direction 
at right angles to 
that of the other, 
and when the 
stakes are all pro- 
perly placed, they 
form a hurdle the 
end of which looks 
like the letter X. 
The engraving 
shows how these 
hurdles are made 
and the method of 
using them. A row 
is placed across 
the field. A strip 
of ten feet wide is 
set off upon which 
the sheep feed. 
They eat up all the 
herbage upon this 
strip and that which they can reach by putting their heads through 
the hurdles. The hurdles are then turned over, exposing another 
strip of forage. When this is fed off the hurdles are again turned 
over, and so on. The cfievaux-de-frise presented by the hurdles 
prevents any trespassing upon the other side of them, and by using 
two rows the sheep are kept in the narrow strip between them. 
Their droppings are therefore very evenly spread over the field, 
and it is very richly fertilized by them. At night the sheep 
are taken off, and when the field has been fed over, they are 
brought back again to the starting point and commence once more 
to eat their way along. When the crop is cut and fed to the sheep, 
a somewhat different arrangement is made. This may be made a 
valuable means of improving land. A badly run-down field in- 
fested with weeds, may be cleared of rubbish, fertilized, and 




Fig. 6. — SHEEP NETTING. 



ao 



THE SHEPHEED's MAifUAL. 




PENNING SHEEP IN THE FIELD. 



31 



brought into grass or clover by judicious management in this way. 
Portions of such a field may be set off with hurdles as before de- 
scribed, a rough shed erected in which the sheep may be secured 
at night, and in which an ample supply of bedding or dry earth, or 
other absorbent is placed beneath them, and here the crop grown 
upon another part of the farm, aided by purchased food, if such 
be available, is fed in portable troughs 
or racks. A very convenient rack is the 
one shown in fig. 8. This is extremely 
portable, and may be moved from one 
part of the field to another with great 
ease. Where sheep are permanently 
kept, and fixed arrangements are made 
for the flock, it is frequently found con- 
venient to provide a permanent and safe 
shed, in a central position, in which they 
may be confined at night, and from which 
they can be turned into different fields or 
portions of the farm. A shed that has 
been found very convenient in use is 
shown at fig. 9. It is built at the center 
of four fields, and has doors opening into 
each of them, and is so arranged that it 
may be entirely closed from all but the 
one which may be in use at the time. 

For the protection of the sheep at 
night, small paddocks may be fenced in 
around this shed, and safety from dogs 
secured by the use of dog guards. These 
consist of wires made to run above the 
fence or at right angles with the top of 
it, as shown at figures 10 and 11. 

The separation of the flock into parts 
consisting of ewes and lambs, weaned 
lambs and weaklings, and rams and 
wethers, is very necessary. Ewes and 
nursing lambs should be provided with 
the best and tenderest pastures; the weaned lambs and weak 
sheep should have a place where they can be furnished with some 
extra feed without interference from stronger neighbors, and 
rams and wethers may do well enough on the coarser herbage. 
A frequent change of pasture is very advantageous for the flock. 
Sheep naturally love change, and after they have wandered over a 




32 



THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 



field will become restless, and try to escape. The best method of 
keeping them contented and quiet, is to change their pasture as 
soon as they are observed to wander about restlessly. They are 




Fig. 9, — SHEEP SHED. 

then losing flesh. To restrict sheep to one kind of food for a 
period of more than thirty days, has been found to seriously im- 
pair their health. " Fresh fields and pastures new " are therefore 
necessary to their welfare, and their health cannot be maintained 





Fig. 10.— DOG GUARD. 



Fig. 11.— DOG GFAHD. 



unless this peculiarity is recognized and accommodated. It is 
better to divide fields into paddocks where small flocks are kept, 



EWES AND LAMBS. 33 

and where the pastures are extensive, to reduce the size and in. 
crease the number of the fields. Where the pasture is an open, 
un fenced tract, the flock should be driven some distance to a new 
locality every month. 

The attention of the shepherd during the summer season will be 
constantly exercised in seeing that every portion of the flock re- 
ceives a proper share of the pasture, that the pasture is not over- 
stocked ; that proper shelter is provided from midday heats ; that 
failure in pasture is immediately remedied by a supply of fresh 
green fodder or extra food, such as wheat-bran, oil-cake-meal, or 
corn-meal ; that pure water is supplied at least twice a day ; that 
a certain portion of salt, or a mixture of salt and sulphur is pro- 
vided and given regularly ; that on the first symptom of indispo- 
sition, affected sheep are removed from the flock to some place 
where they may receive proper care and medicine; that the 
attacks of flies are warded off* by proper preventives ; that para- 
sitic enemies are destroyed, and in short in caring in every possi- 
ble way for the welfare of his charge, watching closely for the 
most minute evidence of the first symptom of trouble that may 
occur, always remembering that " an ounce of prevention is 
worth a pound of cure." To this end he should study closely the 
habits of his sheep in health, make himself thoroughly acquainted 
with the symptoms of disease and the habits and methods of at- 
tacks of those living enemies which trouble the flock, and be pre- 
pared by adequate and exact knowledge of the proper preventives 
and remedies, to apply them instantly, correctly, and effectively. 



CHAPTEE III. 

MANAGEMENT OF EWES AND LAMBS. 

In the management of sheep, how to procure the most profit 
from the flock is the greatest consideration. It is not exactly how 
to increase the flock most rapidly, nor to produce the heaviest 
carcasses or fleeces, but to produce such animals as will return the 
most money for the expenditure and labor involved. In some lo- 
calities the sale of an early lamb will ];)ring in more money than 
that of the mother with its fleece. Where there is a market 
for lambs, it is evidently the most profitable to keep such sheep, 



34 



THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 



and to keep them in such a way as will produce the highest priced 
lambs. Where mutton is the most profitable, there a diflFerent 
management must be adopted, and frequently a different breed of 
sheep must be kept. Where wool only is the object, still another 
different course will be chosen. Whichever end is to be gained, 
the care of the breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subject of 
much solicitude. But what would be a proper course in one case 
would not be at all proper in another. A few general principles 
are involved in the management of ewes and lambs, which will 
first be explained, after which the special management proper to 
be adopted for each special case will be considered. 

The period of gestation of the ewe is 150 to 153 days. Five 
months in round numbers may be taken as the period during 
which the ewe carries a lamb. The coupling of the ewes and 
rams should be so timed, that the lambs may be dropped at the 
most desirable season. It will be found a great convenience to 
mark the rams and ewes, or such of them as may be selected to 
breed stock animals from. Where a small flock only is kept, or 
where special care 
is given to the im- 
provement of the 
breed, every sheep 
should be marked 
by a number, that 
the time of its coup- 
ling may be noted, 
and the date of the 
expected birth of 
the lamb be known. The best method of marking is by means of 
metallic ear marks, (fig. 12), made by C. H. Dana, of West Lebanon, 
N. H., inserted in the ear in different ways, to distinguish the sexes 
easily. The method of keeping these records may be as fol- 
lows : A book is provided which is ruled with six columns. At 
the head of these columns are written the number of the ewe, that 
of the ram, the date of service, the expected time of the lamb's ap- 
pearance, the date when it is actually dropped, and any remarks 
worthy of note. The following diagram exhibits this clearly : 




Fig. 12. — METALLIC EAR-MARKS. 



No. of Ewe. 



137 



No. of Bam. 
4 



When served. 



To Lamb. 



Feb. 26, '76 



Lambed. \ Remarks. 



Feb.28,'76l Twins. 



Sept. 26, '75 

Under the head of remarks should be written anything that may 
be desirable to remember in regard to the character of the produce 
of the animals coupled. A ewe that produces a fine, large, activ6 



CARE OF THE RAM. 35 

lamb, that is a good nurse, and that rears a profitable market 
lamb, or that rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to re- 
tain in the flock so long as she remains productive. Such ewes 
have been kept until 10 or 13, or even 16 years old, and to be able 
to identify a ewe of this kind is very necessary when the greatest 
profit is the object sought, and more especially in those cases when . 
the special business is to rear market lambs or increase the flock f 
rapidly. No more than 30 ewes should be apportioned to one- 
ram in any season, unless he be a full grown one and in vigorous 
health, and it would be well to observe the rules laid down in a/ 
succeeding chapter especially devoted to breeding, for the man- 
agement of the ram at this season. If the ram is equal to the 
work, 50 ewes may be given to him, but it is better to err on the 
safe side in this matter, as overwork simply means barren ewes 
and loss of lambs. At the breeding season the ram should be 
smeared upon the brisket every day with a mixture of raw linseed 
oil and red ocher, so that he will leave a mark upon each ewe that 
may be served. As the ewes are served they are to be drafted 
from the flock and placed in a field or yard by themselves. Two 
rams should not be kept together in a small breeding flock, as 
quarreling and fighting are certain to result and great damage 
may occur. If two rams are necessary, each may be used on 
alternate days. Wethers are a nuisance in a flock of ewes at this 
season, disturbing them and keeping them and themselves from 
feeding. A plan followed with advantage where the flock consists 
of heavy bodied sheep, and where the necessary attention can be 
given, is to keep the ram in a yard or paddock by himself, out of 
sight of the ewes, and to allow a wether to run with them. As 
each ewe comes in season, the wether singles her out and keeps 
company with her. On the return of the flock from the pasture 
at night, the ewe or ewes in season are turned in to the ram until 
they are served, when they may be removed at once, or left with 
him until the morning. In the morning, if any ewes have come 
into heat during the night, they may be served before the flock is 
turned into the pasture. This is continued until it is known that 
all the ewes are in lamb. By this method a ram may be made to 
serve double the numbfer of ewes that he would if allowed indis- 
criminate access to them, and exhaust himself in useless and need' 
less repeated exertions. 

As soon as the ewes have been served, the time of each is entered 
in the record as previously described. They are carefully pre- 
served from all worry by dogs and needless driving or handling. 
Peace and quietness at this season will tend to the production of 



36 THE shephekd's manual. 

quiet and docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself very 
familiar with them, and by giving salt or meal in the hand, or a 
small dish, reduce them to a condition of perfect docility. Any 
ewes that have either refused the ram or have failed to breed, 
should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be stinted in 
their feed for a few days to reduce their condition. This will 
generally be effective in bringing them into season. Good fair 
condition is better than an excess of fat, but ewes in poor condi- 
tion cannot be expected to produce other than poor, weak lambs ; 
neither will an excessively fat ewe produce a strong lamb. Some 
extra food will now be needed by the ewes, and should be given 
at first in small quantities. Bran, crushed malt, and crushed oats 
and corn mixed, are the best kinds of food. Oil-cake, either of 
cotton-seed or linseed, unless used with great caution, is not always 
a healthful food for ewes in lamb. Any food that actively affects 
the bowels, either way, is to be avoided. Half a pint a day may be 
given of the first mentioned foods, and a change from one to an- 
other may be frequently made. So long as pasture is to be had, 
this allowance will be sufficient. When the winter feeding com- 
mences, the ration of grain should be gradually increased until, at 
the period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is given. 
Cold watery food is highly dangerous at this time, and roots 
should not be given in large quantities, nor at all unless pulped 
and mixed with cut hay and the grain. Turnips or other roots 
that have been highly manured with superphosphate of lime has 
been said by several experienced English breeders to be pro- 
ductive of abortion. Water should be given in small and frequent 
quantities. It is best to have running water or w^ater from a well 
always at hand for the ewes. If the ewes have not heretofore been 
kept apart from the rest of the flock, they should now be sepa- 
rated. The general treatment of the ewes up to this time should 
be such as wUl keep them free from all excitement, and in good, 
healthful condition. The record should now be consulted, and as 
the ewes near their time they should be removed into a part of the 
stables or sheep barn, where each one can have a small pen to 
herself. These pens should be made so that light can be shut out 
if desired. Here they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfect 
quiet ; by this means few ewes will disown their lambs, and no 
lambs will be lost by creeping into feed racks or out of the way 
places. The pens should not be larger than 5x4 feet. As soon 
as the lamb is dropped and the ewe has owned and licked it, and 
the lamb has once sucked, all danger, except from gross careless- 
ness, is passed. The ewe will be greatly helped by a drink of 



CARE OF THE EWE. 



37 



slightly warm, thin oat-meal gruel well salted. The lamb will be 
benefitted by a teaspoonful of castor oil, given in new milk, if the 
first evacuations do not pass away freely. These are apt to be 
very glutinous and sticky, and by adhering to the wool to close 
the bowel completely unless removed. Warm water should be 
used to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus and 
surrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor oil. 
If the lamb is not sufficiently strong to reach the teats and suck, it 
should be assisted once or twice. Any locks of wool upon the 
ewe's udder, that may be in the waj^ should be clipped. If the 
lamb is scoured, a 
teaspoonful of a 
mixture of one 
pint of peppermint 
water and one 
ounce of prepared 
chalk should be 
given ever}'' three 
hours, until it is 
relieved. When 
the ewe refuses to 
own the lamb, she 
may be confined 
between two small 
hurdles, as shown 
in fig. 13. Two 
light stakes are 
driven in the 
ground close to- 
gether to confine 
the ewe's head and keep her from butting the lamb. If she is 
disposed to lie down, as some obstinate ones will do, a light pole 
is passed through the hurdles resting upon the lower bar beneath 
her belly. Thus confined during the day, she is helpless, and if 
the lamb is lively, it will manage to get its supply of food. The 
ewe should be released at night. One day's confinement is often 
sufficient to bring an obstinate ewe to reason. 

A twin lamb, or one deprived of its dam, that may need to be 
reared by hand, may easily be fed upon cows' milk. A fresh 
cow's milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe's milk is richer 
in solid matter than that of the cow, and the addition of a tea- 
spoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow's milk will 
make it more palatable to the lamb. At first not more than a 




13.— HURDLES FOR EWE. 



38 



THE SHEPHERD'S MAKUAL. 



quarter of a pint of milk sliould be given at once. The milk should 
be freshly drawn from the cow, and warmed up to 100 degrees 
before it is fed. A convenient method of feeding milk to a lamb 
is to use a small tin can with a long spout, such as is used for oil. 
An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork and a piece of sponge 
covered with a cloth is tied upon the end of the spout. The flow 
is thus made easy and equal, and the lamb sucks in a natural man- 
ner. The accompanying illustration, (fig. 14), shows the method. 
A very short time is sufficient to familiarize the lamb with this 
kind of foster mother. To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe 




Fig. 14. — FEEDIKG LAMBS. 



and the corresponding growth of the lambs, the food of the ewes 
should be of the best character. Clover hay, bran, and crushed 
oats, with some pea-meal, are the most preferable foods, produc- 
ing a rich milk in abundance. The ewes must not be allowed to 
fall off in condition, or the lambs will fail. During mild weather, 
sugar beets may be given in moderate quantity with advantage, 
but mangels or Swede turnips, (ruta-bagas), should be avoided as 
too watery and deficient in nutriment, and productive of scours in 
the lamb. In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the tempera- 
ture of the animal too suddenly if given in any but small quanti- 
ties, and consequently decrease the flow of milk. Pea straw is a 
favorite and nutritious food for sheep, but it will be found profit- 



DOCKH^G AND CASTKATING LAMBS. 39 

able to give only the very best at hand to nursing ewes. The 
after growth and condition of the lambs will greatly depend upon 
the maintenance of a thrifty and continuous growth during the 
first three months of their existence. 

At the age of a week the operations of docking and castrating 
the male lambs, may be safely performed. At this age the young 
animal suffers but little, there is no loss of blood, and the wounds 
heal by the first intention. The rough and ready method of clip- 
ping off the tail an inch from the rump, first drawing the skin 
upwards, and of clipping off the scrotum and testicles altogether 
with a pair of sharp sheep-shears, will be found perfectly safe if 
done before the lamb is two weeks old. The nerves being very 
slightly sensitive at this time, the painful, and when later per- 
formed, dangerous operation of emasculation is only slightly felt, 
and within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generative organs 
will frequently be seen skippmg playfully in the sunshine. To 
dock an older lamb is a more troublesome operation. To do this 
with facility, a block of wood about a foot high, a sharp, broad 
chisel, and a wooden mallet, are required. The operator stoops 
with bended knees, the block being in front of him, takes the lamb 
with its head between his knees and its tail in his left hand, hold- 
ing the chisel in his right hand. Backing the lamb's rump up 
close to the block, he lays the tail upon it, and drawing back 
the skin of the tail up to the rump, holds the chisel lightly 
upon the tail close to and below the fingers of the left hand. 
"When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike the chisel 
smartly with the mallet, by which the tail is instantly severed » 
about two inches from the root. A pinch of powdered bluestone : 
(sulphate of copper), is placed on the wound, and the lamb is re- '' 
leased. To castrate an old lamb with safety, the scrotum should 
be opened by a long free incision with a sharp knife at the lower 
point, the animal being at the time turned upon its back and 
secured in that position. The scrotum should be held in the 
hand tightly enough to keep the skin tense. The cut should be 
made only through the skm and coats of the testicle, and not into 
the gland, by which a great deal of pain is spared to the anunal. 
The gland will escape from the scrotum at once if the opening is 
made large enough. It may be taken in the left hand and the cord 
and vessels scraped apart, not cut, by which bleeding is prevented 
and healing made more certain and rapid. The opening being made 
at the bottom of the scrotum, allows the blood and any pus that 
forms in the wound, to escape freely. It might probably be bene- 
ficial to insert a small plug of tow in the wound, projecting out of 



40 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 

it a short distance to prevent the edges from healing until the in- 
flammation lias subsided. This method of operation is a safe one, 
and if it is neatly done, the losses need not be one per cent, while 
frequently three lambs out of five may be lost by any other 
method. 

While the lambs are still with the ewes, and although the ewes 
may be well fed with a special view to the thriftiness of the lambs, 
yet a supply of additional food for the latter will be of great ad- 
vantage to them. To furnish a young animal with all the food 
that it can digest, and that of the choicest character, is to create a 
sturdy, thrifty, strong constitutioned animal that will be prolific 
in reproduction and long lived. To advance the maturity of 
an animal is also to lengthen its life, for it matters not at which 
part of its productive career we add a year, it certainly, so far as 
profit is concerned, lives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe 
can be made to produce a healthful, strong lamb, or a lamb can be 
brought by care to maturit}' for the market at eighteen months in- 
stead of thirty months, this result is simply equal to a profit of 40 
per cent. And feed is the agent by which this profit is secured, of 
course made available by proper care in selecting the breeding 
stock. To provide the means whereby the lambs may procure the 
extra feed needed for their rapid development, many contrivances 
have been brought into use. Generally these are modifications of 
the plan of providing a pen or yard adjoining that in which the 
ewes are kept, with " creep holes " in the fence through which the 
lambs can gain access to it. In this yard some feed, consisting of 
oats, rye, and wheat bran ground together very finely, is placed in 
troughs or boxes, and lightly salted. They will soon find this, and 
will resort to it several times a day. A very simple and conve- 
nient " lamb creep" is figured at fig. 15, and has been illustrated 
and described in an English journal, the Agricultural Gazette. It 
is ver}'- frequently used by English farmers, and is worthy of being 
adopted by us. It consists of a small double gate or two half gates 
set at such a distance apart that the lamb can easily force itself 
through between them. An upright roller on each side of the 
opening assists the lamb in getting through the space, and prevents 
it from rubbing or tearing its wool. The gates are pivoted at top 
and bottom, so that they will open a little cither way ; a wooden 
spring being fixed so as to keep them closed after the lamb has 
passed in or out. The lambs pass in or out at will. Creeps of 
this kind can be made so as to occupy a panel of fence or a gate- 
way, and of a portable character, so that they can be easily fixed 
to the fence-post on each side bv a wire or withe, and removed 



WEANING LAMBS. 



41 



when no longer needed. But, by whatever means it maybe done, 
the lambs should be supplied with some additional concentrated 
and nutritious feed. As a gentle laxative in case of constipation, 
a few ounces of linseed oil-cake-meal will be found sufficient, and 
far better than physic. Linseed oil, (raw), or castor oil, a tea- 
tspoonful of either at a dose, will be found safe and effective for 
either constipation or diarrhea, unless of a serious character. 
As lambs progress towards the period for weaning, the extra 




Fig. 15.— LAMB CKEEP. 

food should be gradually increased, unless they can be removed 
to a good pasture of short, tender grass. In this case even a small 
allowance at night on their return to the fold will be beneficial. 
The weaning should be very gradually done. The sudden remov- 
al of the lambs from their dams is injurious to both. It too ab- 
ruptly deprives the lambs of their most easily digested and most 
agreeable food. It forces them to load the stomach with food for 
which it is hardly yet prepared, and suddenly arrests theh* growth 



42 THE shepheed's manual. 

both by a stinting of food and by the nervous irritation conse- 
quent upon their sudden deprivation. The dams in full flow of 
milk, thus at once deprived of the means of relief, are subjected 
to the engorgement of the udder, with the consequent congestion 
of all the organs connected therewith. This shock is very injuri- 
ous, and frequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood 
or garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change, it is 
well to remove the lambs to a distant pasture, along with some 
dry ewes or wethers for company. The novel experience of a 
fresh pasture will cause them to forget their dams, and they will 
utter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. At night they 
should be turned into the fold with the ewes, whose full udders 
they will speedily relieve. By withdrawing any extra feed hith- 
erto given to the ewes, somewhat gradually, (in no case is it wise 
to make a sudden change in the management of sheep), their sup- 
ply of milk will gradually decrease, and in two weeks the whole of 
the lambs may be weaned with perfect safety to themselves and 
the ewes. 

After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first 
choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the fodder 
crops. Many farmers have found it advantageous in every way 
to turn newly weaned lambs into a field of com in the month of 
August. The corn is too far grown to be injured, the suckers 
only will be nibbled by the lambs, and the weeds which grow up 
after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely. The lambs also 
have the benefit of a cool shade, and where such a field can be 
conveniently applied to this purpose, there are several reasons 
why it might well be done. 

The condition of the ewes must not be neglected at this time. 
The chief danger is in regard to those that are heavy milkers. 
Such sheep should be closely watched, and the milk drawn by 
hand from those whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. 
The first approach to hardness or heat in the udder should be 
remedied by an immediate dose of an ounce of epsom salts dis- 
solved in water, and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger. 
The next two days 20 grains of saltpeter should be given each 
morning and evening, to increase the action of the kidneys. These 
remedies will generally relieve the udder, and will tend to greatly 
reduce the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass, 
and the ewe confined in a cool darkened pen, the diying up of the 
milk will be hastened. 

As the improvement of the flock can be better made from within 
than by giving the sole attention to bringing new blood from 



SELECTION OF LAMBS FOK BREEDIKG. 43 

without, it will be very important to select the best lambs, both of 
rams and ewes, for breeders. The selection should be made 
chiefly in reference to the purposes for which the flock is kept, 
and strength of constitution, rapidity of growth, size, tendency to 
fat ; fineness, length or quality of wool, and prolificness and cer- 
tainty of breeding, in the parents as well as, so far as can be 
judged of, in the lambs themselves, should be made the tests by 
which the selection is determined. If the production of early 
lambs for market is the object, the produce of those ewes which 
bring single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosen v 
to increase the flock ; if the production of mutton sheep, then those \ 
lambs from ewes which drop twins, and are good nurses, ought to / 
be kept ; and if wool of any particular kind is desired, then the 
selection should be made chiefly in reference to that. On no ac- 
count should weakly lambs, or those ewes which are poor nurses, 
or fail to breed, or which exhibit tenderness of constitution, or are 
wanderers, or of uneasy, restless dispositions, be retained ; but 
such unprofitable animals should be closely weeded out and fat- 
tened for sale or for slaughter. The choice of ram lambs is of 
chief importance, for the influence of the ram runs through the 
flock, while that of the ewe is confined to her produce alone. To 
select a lamb for a stock ram is a matter requiring a knowledge of \ 
the principles of breeding, and some tact and experience. The lat- ) 
ter qualifications cannot be acquired from books, but must be 
gained by practice ; nevertheless, much as to the selection of lambs 
may be learned from a careful consideration of what will be found 
in the succeeding chapter, which is specially devoted in part to 
this important branch of the shepherd's knowledge. 

The proper age for breeding diflfers with the class of sheep bred. / 
The Merino is not mature enough for breeding until fully two or 
three years old. Other breeds which mature more quickly are 
ripe for breeding as yearlings, but there is nothing gained by suf- 
fering any sheep less than a year old to reproduce. A young ram 
in its second year may be allowed to serve a few ewes, if he is \ 
vigorous and well grown. A ram at two years may serve 30 ewes | 
in a season, and after that from 50 to 60 or 70, according to the 
manner in which he is kept, and if he is restricted to no more than ^ 
one or two services of each ewe. The strength and vigor of the 
lamb certainly depends on that of the ram by which it is sired, as 
well as on the condition and character of the ewe. Ewe lambs of 
less than a year old should be kept in a separate flock by them- 
selves where they may not be disturbed by the rams. The second 
year they are capable of breeding, and if they have been well 

7 



44 THE shepherd's makual. 

cared for, will produce as large lambs and as many twins as older 
sheep. The young ewes having their first lambs are apt to be ner- 
vous, and need careful attention at yeaning time ; it is then that 
the great convenience resulting from having a docile and friendly 
flock, well acquainted with, and confiding in, their shepherd, is 
manifest. The young ewes should not be put to the ram until the 
older ones are served, so that they will not drop their lambs until 
the spring is well advanced, and the pressure upon the shepherd 
becomes lighter. As a rule they are poor nurses, and if the season 
is cold, will lose many lambs. If they are not allowed to have 
lambs until April or May, so much the better ; it will then be neces- 
sary to keep them from the ram until November and December. 
Difficulty in parturition is sometimes experienced with young ewes, 
and assistance is often needed. This should be given with the 
utmost gentleness and tenderness. When the presentation is all 
right and natural, and the fore feet appear, but difficulty occurs in 
ejecting the head, a very slight and slow drawing upon the feet 
may help the ewe in expelling the lamb. Sometimes in her ner- 
vous struggles the head may be turned backwards, and does not 
appear when the fore legs have protruded. In this case the lamb 
should be gently forced backwards, and the hand or fingers, well 
oiled with linseed oil, and the finger nails being closely pared, are 
inserted, and the head gently brought into position, when it will 
be expelled without further trouble. For more difficult and ab- 
normal presentations, the services of an experienced shepherd will 
be needed, but such cases are very rare, and will very seldom oc- 
cur if the flock has been carefully attended to, and has not been 
overdriven, or worried by dogs, or knocked about by horned cattle. 
When a ewe loses her lamb it is best to make her adopt one of 
another ewe's twins. This may be done by rubbing the skin of 
the live lamb with the dead one, removing the dead one and shut- 
ting up the ewe and live lamb together in a dark pen. When a 
lamb loses her dam, it may be given to a ewe that has lost her 
lamb, or from which her lamb has been taken, or with care it may 
be brought up by hand without difficulty. In every considerable 
flock it will pay to have a fresh cow on hand at the lambing sea- 
son, to fill the place of foster mother to disowned or abandoned 
lambs, or to assist those whose dams for any reason are short of 
milk. 

The question as to when a lamb becomes a sheep, although of 
no practical utility, has sometimes been of sufficient importance 
to require a decisive reply. A legal decision was given in an 
English court not long since, which is probably as reasonable as 



PEEVENTION OF DISEASE. 45 

we may expect, and may be accepted as being authoritative. The 
question arose out of the killing of some sheep on a railroad by a 
passing train, and it was denied that the complaint was properly 
made, the animals being lambs, and not sheep. The judge decided 
that lambs ceased to be lambs, and became sheep as soon as they 
had acquired their first pair of permanent teeth. This change of 
teeth generally occurs when the lamb is a year old. At this period 
the middle pair of the first teeth drop out, and a pair of the per- 
manent incisors appear. At one year and nme months, two more 
of the first teeth are dropped and two more permanent incisors, 
one on each side of the former pair, appear. Nine months later, 
two more permanent incisors appear in a similar manner, and nine 
months later still, another pair are produced, so that at three years 
and a quarter the sheep has eight permanent incisors or nippers, 
and is then called a full-mouthed or perfect sheep. These periods 
of dentition are irregular, and in some of the early maturing 
breeds, the first pair of permanent teeth will appear before the 
end of the first year, and at 16 months, four permanent incisors 
may be found. The earlier maturity of the high bred and high 
fed races of sheep, such as the Leicester, Cotswold and Shrop- 
shire, sometimes amounts to a gain over the common breeds of 
nearly a year in time, and full-mouthed sheep of no more than two 
years and a half old are not uncommonly met with. 

The diseases to which lambs are subject are but few, and those 
are mainly the result of carelessness in their management. The 
lamb, which appears so delicate and tender an animal, is really 
hardy, and resists much ill treatment, else with, so little consider- 
ation as they usually receive, the race would soon become almost 
extinct. Damp and cold are especially to be guarded against in 
the spring, and filthy yards at all seasons. With clean pens and 
dry, clean bedding, they will resist the severe dry colds of a north- 
em January, and thrive and grow while snow storms rage, if 
only well sheltered. Sunshine has a remarkable effect upon 
lambs, and the warmth of the sun will often revive and strengthen 
a weak lamb that appears past relief. Extremes of damp and im- 
pure air in close pens, and bad drinking water, will produce diar- 
rhea and paralysis, and these are the chiefly fatal disorders to 
which they are subject. Constipation is produced by want of 
proper laxative food, and permitting them to feed on dry, withered 
herbage that has lost its nutritive qualities beneath the storms of a 
winter. If the directions as to their treatment heretofore given, 
are followed, there will rarely be any need of remedial measures, 
and prevention will be found better than any amount of cure. If, 



46 THE shepherd's manual. 

notwithstanding all possible care, some weakly lambs are found 
to require treatment, the simple purgatives already mentioned in 
this chapter, viz : a teaspoonful of castor or raw linseed oil will be 
found effective, after two or three doses, in removing the trouble- 
some matter from their intestines, and restoring the bowels to 
healthful action. If in any case, a stimulant seems to be needed, 
as when great weakness and prostration are present, the safest is a 
teaspoonful of gin, given in a little warm water with sugar. A 
still more gentle stimulant and anodyne, but one very effective in 
prolonged diarrhea, is prepared by adding to a pint of peppermint 
water, one ounce of prepared chalk, a teaspoonful each of tmc- 
ture of opium and of tincture of rhubarb ; it is worthy of the 
name given to it by shepherds, viz : " lambs cordial," and at the 
lambing season no shepherd should be without a supply of it. 
The dose is a teaspoonful for a lamb of a few days old, up to a 
tablespoonful for one of a month. Exposure to cold rains should 
be specially guarded against, and if by inadvertence a lamb is found 
chilled and rigid from such exposure, it may generally be restored 
by m.eans of a bath of warm water and a teaspoonful of warm sweet- 
ened gin and water. After the bath the lamb should be gently 
dried, wrapped in a warm flannel, and placed near a fire or in a 
wooden box in a gently heated oven of a common stove. Where 
the flock is large, and the kitchen is not within reach, the shepherd 
should have the conveniences of a shed and an old cooking-stove 
in which he can keep a fire suflScient to heat a water bath, and pro- 
vide a warm bed in the oven for any lamb that may need such 
attention ; if the flock numbers several hundred head in all, 
there will seldom be a day in our changeable spring seasons when 
there will not be one or more patients to be treated. The specific 
diseases to which lambs are subject will be found treated of at 
large in Chapter VII. 

As the season progresses, and shearing time for the ewes has 
passed, the lambs will be found covered with ticks, unless care has 
been exercised to free the flock from this tormenting pest. These 
ticks are wingless, broad, plump, dark red insects, about a quarter 
of an inch in length, and covered with a very tough and leathery 
integument. They are known scientifically as Melophagus (minus, 
and produce a puparium which is nearly round in shape, red in 
color, and as large as a radish seed or duck shot. The legs of the 
tick are short and stout, and it adheres with great tenacity to the 
wool. By means of a proboscis as long as its head, it pierces the 
skin and sucks the blood of its victim to such an excess that when 
numerous, they have been known to almost entirely empty the 



REMEDY FOR TICKS. 



47 



veins and deprive a lamb of life. The draft upon the vitality of 
lambs infested with ticks is very great, and sufficient to arrest their 
growth altogether. To rid the flock of these pests is therefore a 
necessary labor ia the spring or early summer, and if need be, 
again in the autumn. The easiest remedy is to dip both sheep and 
lambs, as soon as the sheep are shorn, and again in August or 
September, in a decoction of tobacco mixed with sulphur. Coarse 
plug tobacco, or tobacco stems, which are cheaper than the leaves, 
and equally effective, are steeped in water at a boiling heat, but 
not boiling, at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water. 




Fig. 16.— DIPPING SHEEP, 

One pound of flowers of salphur is then stirred in the liquid, which 
is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees, and kept so during the 
dipping by the addition of fresh hot liquor. During the dipping, 
the mixture is kept stirred to prevent the sulphur from subsiding. 
The dip may be conveniently placed in a trough or a tub large 
enough to allow of the immersion of the sheep or the lamb, which 
is taken by the feet by two men and plunged into the bath at the 
temperature mentioned, where it is held for a minute or two until 
the wool is thoroughly saturated. The animal is then placed in a 
pen with a raised floor sloping on each side to a trough in the 
middle, along which the superabundant liquor escapes into a pail 
or tub placed to receive it. The method of dipping, (shown at 



48 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



figures 16 and 17), is calculated for small flocks, or for a few hun- 
dred lambs. For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided, 12 feet 
long, three feet wide, and four feet deep. A fenced platform leads 
from a pen in which the sheep are gathered, up to the edge of the 
dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from the pen, 
led up the platform, and pushed into the tank in which the dip 
is sufiiciently deep to cover them. As the sheep plun^-e into the 
dip, they are seized, and kept beneath it, except the head, which 
alone ig sufi"ered to emerge above it. If m their struggles a little 
of the dip should enter their nostrils, no harm results, but the hot 
tobacco water is, on the contrary, often beneficial to those sheep 
which are afi'ected by catarrh or grub in the head, and the violent 
sneezings which follow may help to free them from these trouble- 
some parasites which often inhabit the nasal sinuses. The sheep 
are rapidly passed 
from hand to hand 
along the tank un- 
til they reach the 
end, where there is 
a sloping plank 
upon which they 
can walk up to 
another platform. 
Here they are al- 
lowed to remain 
while the excess of 
dip is squeezed 
wool 

Fig. 17.— TROUGH FOB DIPPING LAMBS. 



IS 

from their 
From this 




the 



liquid drains into tubs, and is carried to the boiler to be re- 
heated, and then returned to the tank for use again. The cost of 
dipping a large flock, numbering several thousands, in this man- 
ner twice in the season is five cents a head, and the improvement 
in the quality of the wool, which results from the cleansing of the 
skin from dust, grease, and the accumulated refuse of its secre- 
tions, and its increase in quantity consequent upon the greater 
comfort of the sheep and their escape from the persecution of 
ticks and other parasites, is estimated at 20 cents per head, so that 
the cost is repaid more than three-fold. The comforting knowl- 
edge to the humane shepherd that his flock is freed from a most 
annoying torment, is also something, which, although it docs not 
enter into a pecuniary calculation, and is not measured by dollars 
and cents, yet is not on that account unworthy of consideration. 



WINTER MANAGEMENT. 49 

There is no greater satisfaction to the owner of a flock, who cares 
for his sheep, and takes pleasure in their welfare, and in a measure 
loves the gentle Idndly animals, and is interested in managing them 
so that they may enjoy all the comfort possible for them, than to 
know that, so far as any efforts of his are concerned, nothing is 
left undone that can add to their contentment, and that they are 
spared every discomfort and pain that it is possible to prevent. 



CHAPTEE IV. 

WINTER MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 

The change from green, succulent food, to that of a dry and 
concentrated character, is one that needs to be cautiously made. 
As the summer departs and the fall rains occur, succeeded in their 
turn by the more rigorous storms of winter, conditions arise which 
call for a complete change of management on the part of the shep- 
herd who looks for profit from his flock. It may be a question 
with some if quality of feed or shelter is the more important con- 
sideration in the best management of sheep. Certainly abun- 
dant experience has shown that with the most careful and 
judicious feeding, sheep, which when well tended are in reality 
hardier than are generally supposed, have passed safely and 
thriftily through a winter's storms with no more shelter than 
that afforded by an open shed; and that they have of their 
own free will refused the shelter, and have chosen to rest upon 
the bare snow, at times when the air has been dry and clear. But 
no case has as yet ever occurred in the experience of any shepherd 
in which sheep have thrived without well selected, proper, and 
abundant food, and cases are always occurring in which sheep 
are greatly injured by excessive carefulness in this matter of 
shelter. To feed well and judiciously, may therefore be 
regarded as the first duty and interest of the shepherd ; and to 
shelter the flock only so far as to maintain it in healthful con- 
dition, avoiding exposure to unusual rigors of heat or storm, 
will be not exactly a second duty, but one that attaches to this 
first interest as being intimately associated with it rather than 
separated from it. Nevertheless, as before a flock can be fed, it i§ 
3 



50 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



necessary to liave a store of food and a feeding place, it may be 
well to consider first the subjects of shelters or barns, feed racks, 
and facilities for watering. 

The first requisites for the comfort of sheep in their winter 
lodging are a dry clean floor, a tight roof, and abundant ventila- 
tion. The site of a sheep-house should therefore be well drained, 
and of such a character that it can be kept clean and free from 
filth. It should, if possible, be on high ground which slopes each 
way from it, but at any rate it should slope to the south or south- 
east. The house should be well roofed and provided with rain 
troughs and spouts to carry the water away from the yard into 
either a covered drain or a cistern. It should be open at the front, 
protected only by a projecting roof, and the walls, if of boards, 
need not be battened over the joints, as the air which will enter 




Fig. 18.— SHEEP BABN. 

through these cracks will be no more than will be needed to keep 
that within fresh and pure. Some more carefully protected shelter 
must be provided for the use of yeaning ewes and young lambs, 
in a part of the house or in another building, but until the appear- 
ance of the lambs is looked for, this warmer shelter will not be 
needed. The loft over the lower apartment will be used for stor- 
ing hay or other fodder, and space for this purpose may be econ- 
omized by having the upper floor only so far above the ground 
floor as will allow the shepherd a comfortable passage beneath it. 
A building which is well arranged and convenient is shown in 
figures 18, 19, 20, and 21. The following description with the 
illustrations are taken from the American Agriculturist. It con- 
sists of a barn, shown at fig. 18, about 20 feet wide, 16 feet high 



BARl^S AND SHEDS. 



51 



from basement to eaves, and as long as desirable. This is intended 

to store the hay or fodder. The posts, sills, and plates are all 8 

mches square, the girts and braces are 4 inches square, the beams 

3x10, are placed 16 inches apart, and are cross-bridged with 

strips, 3 mches wide. The hay is piled inside, so that the feed 

passage below, over 

which there are trap- 
doors, is left uncov- 
ered. The hay is 

thrown down through 

these doors, and falls 

upon a sloping shelf, 

which carries it into 

the feed racks below, 

(see fig. 19). The 

basement under the 

barn is 8 feet high, 

and is of stone on 

three sides; the front 

is supported by posts 

8 inches square, and 8 

feet apart. Between 

each pair of posts a 

door is hung upon 

pins, (fig. 20), which 

fit into grooves in the 

posts, so that the door 

may be raised and ^^^' 19.— section of BuiLDiNa 

fastened, in such a manner, as to close the upper half of the space 
between the posts; or be Jield suspended half way, leaving the 
whole open; or be shut down and close the lower half; or be 
removed altocrether. By this contrivance at least half the front 

of the basement must be left open, 
whether the sheep be shut in or out. 
The floor of the basement should be 
slightly sloping from rear to front, so 
that it will always be dry. Fig. 21 shows 
the plan of the basement. The feed- 
passage is shown at c; the stairway to the root-cellar at b, and the 
root-cellar at a. Fig. 19 gives a section of the whole barn. The 
hay-loft is above, and the passage-way and the doors, by which the 
hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below ; as well as the sloping 
shelf by which the hay is carried into the feed-racks are showa 




Fig. 20. — HANGING DOOK 
FOR BARN, 



62 



THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 



Below the feed-rack is tlie feed-trough for roots or meal. A door 
shuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, while the feed is 
being prepared, and when it is ready, the door is raised, and held 
up to the feed-rack by a strap or a hook. The feed-rack is closely 



^ ^ ^^^vx^^^x,^xs\<^\\^x^^^^\\<\^^^^v,^^w ^^v^^^^^NA^^\^^^ 



cv 



c 



lllllllltilllllll 




Fig. 21. — GEOmSTD PLAN OF BARN. 

boarded behind, and this back part, which is in the feed-passage, 
slopes forward to the front, so as to carry the hay forward to the 
bottom. The front of the rack is of upright slats, smoothly 
dressed, two inches wide, and placed three inches apart. The 
boards of the feed-trough are smoothly dressed and sand-papered, 
and all the edges are rounded, so that there is nothing by which 
the wool may be torn or rubbed off from the sheep's necks. It 
"will be seen by this arrangement, that there is no dangerous thing 




SHEEP SHED FOB A SMALL FAEM. 



by which a sheep or a lamb might be hurt, nor a place where it 
can get into mischief. The root-cellar is at the rear of the base- 
ment, and is reached by the stairs already mentioned. The cost 
of the barn here described, if built of pine or hemlock lumber, in 



BAENS AND SHEDS. 



53 




54 



THE SHEPHEED'S MAKUAL. 



a plain manner, and of sufficient size to accommodate 100 sheep, 
would be from $300 to $500. 

Another sheep-house suitable for small farms, that is designed 
for small flocks, is shown at figure 22. It is altogether open 
in the front on 
the ground floor, 
and is intended 
to face to the 
south. This is a 
very cheap and 
convenient shed 
for a small flock ; 
it has an enclosed 
yard attached to 
it. A shelter in- 
tended for a large 
flock is shown at 
figure 23. This 
building was 
erected by Mr. 
George Grant, of 
Victoria, Kansas, 
for his flock of 
7,000 sheep. The 
walls are of stone, 
and the roof of 
boards. The main 
structure is 570 
feet in length, 
and the three 
wings are each of 
eqfual length. The 
width of each of 
the sheds is 24 
feet, and the hight 
of the walls 10 
feet. At one cor- 
ner of the " cor- 
ral," which is the name given on the western plains to such sheds 
as this and other enclosures, is the shepherd's house, in which he 
resides, and is at all times near his flock, and able to render imme- 
diate attention. A shed of this character is rather costly in its 
construction, and a small capitalist would find it beyond the limit 




Fi"-. 21. — MR. SHAW'S SHEEP SHED. 



BARNS AKD SHEDS. 



55 



of his resources. One of a ctieaper construction and less perma- 
nent character, but nevertheless of equal value for shelter so long 
as it lasts, is shown in figure 24. This shed was built by Mr. 
Shaw, of Syracuse, Kansas, and v/as found to answer every pur- 
pose. It is made of posts set in the ground, which support a single 
sloping roof that is thatched with coarse hay from the river bot- 
toms adjacent to his location. The enclosure contains a windmill, 
watering trough, stack-yard, and feed-racks, and is intended to 
accommodate a flock of 300 to 300 sheep- The length of the en- 
closure is 200 feet, 
and the width 100 
feet, making in all 
600 feet of shed. 
Figure 25 represents 
the sheep-fold of 
Mr. Henry Nason, 
of Orange C. H., 
Virginia, in which 
his flock of 300 ewes 
is sheltered from 
the weather as well 
as from dogs and 
thieves by night. 
This flock is kept 
mainly for the pro- 
duction of early 
lambs for market. 
Especial attention 
is given to the com- 
fort and care of Fig. 25.-plan of mr. nason's shed. 

the ewes and the lambs, and warm separate pens are provided for 
them when they require them. The yard, «, is 100 feet square, 
divided by a hurdle fence, shown by the dotted lines, into as many 
portions as may be desired. The entrance is at 6, where there is a 
gate hung upon a post, c, in such a way as to open or close each 
half of the yard. The yard is enclosed on three sides by a 
shed 10 feet high, with a roof sloping both ways. The ground 
floor, 7 feet high, is appropriated for sheep pens, and the three 
feet above for a hay loft. The shed is 12 feet wide, and has a 
row of separate pens 6 feet wide, upon the north side. On the 
other sides there are narrow doors for the sheep, seen at <f, d, and 
sliding shutters, <?, e, 8 feet long, and 3i feet high, which are also 
used for entrances to the shed. The yard is closed at the front by 




56 THE shepheed's manual. 

a fence 10 feet liigh. There are no outside windows, and only two 
doors, and but one of these, that at /, is locked from the out- 
side, so that the turning of one key secures the whole enclos- 
ure from trespassers. There is a second yard, 150 by 135 feet, 
upon the south side of the sheep yard, with an open shed facing 
the south, and divided into pens 9 feet deep, for cows or sheep, 
and a pig pen 35 feet square, at the south-east of the sheep yards. 
These sheds are made of inch boards, nailed up and down upon 
the frame work, and the roof is of boards, with a sufficient pitch to 
shed rain perfectly. 

In estimating the size of the sheds required for any given num- 
ber of sheep it will be safe to allow 10 square feet of floor to each 
sheep, when a yard adjoining the shed is provided, and there is 
abundant ventilation in the shed ; and 12^ square feet when there 
is no yard, but only the most ample ventilation by means of boards 
at the eaves, to be let down, and trap-doors in the roof to be 
opened. Space may be economized if thought desirable, and the 
expense of the sheds reduced, by having a second floor for the 
sheep which is reached by means of a sloping passage-way of 
planks upon which cleats are nailed crosswise to afford a foothold. 
Sheep will readily ascend a gang-way of this kind, and will choose 
the upper in preference to the ground floor. The upper floor 
in this case must be made perfectly close and tight, of matched 
boards tarred at the joint^s, and ample dry bedding should be pro- 
vided to absorb all the moisture. This floor should not be 
less than seven feet above the ground floor ; this will secure suf- 
ficient ventilation if the lowe^: doors are double, and the upper 
halves are kept open, and there are a sufficient number of open 
windows or ventilating boards or spaces. A shed 20 by 50 feet 
will comfortably contain 100 moderate-sized sheep ; 75 large Cots- 
wold or Leicester sheep have been accommodated in a lean-to shed 
of this size, with ventilating boards and traps in the roof. In 
this shed there was a ventilating board arranged near the bottom 
by partly opening which, a plenty of fresh ah* could be admitted. 
On the whole, the sheds with a half open front, that may be closed 
wholly or partly, with a yard adjoining, will be found preferable 
to those which are made to be entirely closed. 

A convenient bam which furnishes space for shearing, room for 
the storage of wool, pens for lambs and ewes, and lofts for fodder 
and straw, with ample open sheds and a roomy yard, is shown at 
figure 26. It can be made larger or smaller, to suit the needs of a 
large or small flock. The main building, of which this is a repre- 
sentation, is raised four feet from the ground upon posts, and the 



BARNS AITD SHEDS. 



57 



space tlius gained furnishes additional shelter. This barn has the 
advantage of being suitable for a cattle barn in case sheep-keeping 
is abandoned for a 
time, and is well 
adapted to either west- 
ern or eastern sheep 
or stock farming. 
As perfect cleanliness 
and pure air are ne- 
cessary to the health- 
fulness of the flock, 
the matter of litter in 
the sheds and yards, 
as well as the drain- 
age of the roof and 
floor, are to be well 
provided for. Eaves- 
troughs, gutters and 
waste-pipes should be 
provided and made 
to discharge into a 
drain, which will car- 
ry the rain water be- 
neath the ground, 
away from the yard. 
The litter should be 
dry, plentiful, and of 
a kind that is absorb- 
ent. If plentifully 
given, and if the right 
kind, it may be allow- 
ed to accumulate for 
the whole winter 
without removal, and 
in so doing there will 
be less odor in the 
shed than if it were 
cleaned out weekly. 
The litter and the 
droppings are trod- 
den down very compactly, and the mass being thus kept from 
the access of air, only a very slow decomposition occurs which 
gives off no more smell or vapor than can be absorbed by the fresh 




58 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

litter daily thrown down in the shed. Hardwood sawdust, dry 
seasoned peat or swamp muck, forest leaves, dried spent tan- 
bark, long or cut straw, chafl", or even sand, make veiy good litter 
and absorbents. If a supply of these materials can be procured, 
sufficient for daily use in a crowded pen or yard, the straw, which 
would otherwise be needed for this purpose, may with great 
economy be reserved for fodder. If straw or corn-fodder cut into 
small pieces, is fed in the racks once a day, there will be a certain 
portion pulled out on to the flo<jr which will add to the litter. If 
straw is used for litter, it should be cut into chaH", which will 
much facilitate the removal of the manure in the sprmg. This is 
especially convenient if pea straw is used, for when a quantity of 
pea straw and manure is trodden together, they form such a 
tangled mass that it is a most tiresome labor to fork it up and re- 
move it. Corn-stalks should not be thrown under foot for the 
same reason. If it is thought proper to remove the litter and 
dung periodically, every week for instance, then the floor should 
afterwards receive a heavy coating of dry litter. In case the ma- 
nure is removed, it should not on any account be heaped in the 
yard. It will undergo an active fermentation and become hot, 
giving forth clouds of vapor in damp weather, and at all times 
pungent gases. Some of the sheep will choose the manure heap 
to lie upon at nights, and every one that is suffered to do this will 
inevitably sicken, and become affected with catarrh or pneumonia, 
or lose its wool in patches. Either the litter should not be cleaned 
out at all, or it should be removed to a distance from the yards. 
It is easy to manage matters either way, so that the air of the shed 
will be pure and free from offensive smell, if proper attention is 
given, and the shepherd is watchful and careful of the condition 
of the floors of the shed. 

The feed-racks should be so made that the sheep can procure 
their feed without tearing the wool from their necks or filling 
their fleeces with dust, chaff, or hay-seed. The floor of the loft 
should be made close and tight, using either matched boards or 
double boards laid so as to break joints, and prevent the droppmg 
of dust from above. A rack for hay or straw should be made in 
the manner shown at figure 27 ; it should be 3^ feet high at the 
front. The bars are only three inches apart. They should be 
made of ash, chestnut, or oak strips, dressed and smoothly sand- 
papered, and an inch thick by one and a quarter wide. The front 
of the rack should slope backwards at the top 3 or 4 inches, This 
prevents hay or clover dust from falling out upon the sheeps* 
heads. At the rear of the rack sloping boards are fitted, so that 



FEED RACKS. 



59 



as part of the hay is eaten, the rest falls down to the front where 
the sheep can reach it. The end of the rack should be closed with 
bars in the same way as the front, so that young lambs cannot 
creep in and get lost. For want of this precaution a fine lively 
young lamb will sometimes get into a tight place, where it may 
become chilled and die. This rack may be made of any length, 
and should ex- 
tend all round the 
shed in order to 
give the greatest 
possible extent 
of feeding room. 
The form of this 
rack prevents the 
sheep from 
thrusting their 
heads between 
the bars and 
wearing the wool 
from their necks, 
or from stran- 
gling themselves 
by getting their 
heads fast be- 
tween the bars, which they will do with many of the racks in 
common use, of which the bars are frequently too far apart. 

For feeding cut or pulped roots, or fine feed, such as bran-meal 
or grain, a rack made on the plan of that shown at figure 8 on 
page 31, will be useful. The rack there figured is a portable one 
intended for use in the field or yard, but a fixed rack similar to it 
may be made in the shed if desired. The bars placed over the 
rack prevent the stronger sheep from crowding the weaker ones 
from their feed, and getting more than their share, and also pre- 
vent the more active ones from leaping into the trough in their 
eagerness to procure an undue portion of food. 

The variety of foods suitable for the winter feeding is extensive. 
Hay, straw, pea and bean haulm, corn-fodder, roots of various 
kinds, com, oats, peas, rye, buckwheat, cotton-seed and linseed 
oH-cake-meal, and bran, furnish a variety of food from which a 
proper choice can readily be made. The relative feeding values 
of these various substances used as food, will determine their rela- 
tive money values, and as these difier and fluctuate from time to 
time, it is often necessary, to secure the most profit on the feeding. 




Fig. 27.— FEED-RACK. 



60 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



to choose the food that is most economical in use, although it may- 
be the highest in price. Clover hay is the most valuable single food 
for winter use, if it has been cut when in blossom, cured so as to 
preserve all its good qualities, and kept free from damp and mold. 
Where the main object in view is the production of market lambs 
clover hay should furnish the chief subsistence of the ewes. It 
will also be found preferable as the staple and cheapest fodder 
when sheep are purchased for feeding for market, and the most 
rapid growth of flesh is desirable. Well cured pea straw will be 
chosen by sheep next to clover hay and before timothy or any 
other hay. Oat straw is readily eaten by sheep, and is a healthful 
food, especially if harvested before the oats were dead ripe. Bar- 
ley, wheat, and rye straw will help to keep life in a flock, but are 
not sufficiently nutritive to contribute much to the growth of flesh 
or wool, and should be used only as adjuncts to roots and grain, 
or oil-cake-meal. Rye straw is apt to be sprinkled with dust of 
ergot, a fungus which is frequently found growing on the heads of 
rye, and which has a highly injurious effect upon pregnant ewes, 
producing abortion or premature births of the lambs. Rye straw 
is also frequently the cause of great inflammation of the stomachs 
and intestines of sheep, from the penetration of the mucous coats 
by the sharp awns or beards of the heads. Cases have occurred 
in which the stomachs of sheep fed on rye or bearded wheat straw, 
have been found after death thickly studded with the beards, 
which caused inflammation of the coats of the stomachs and con- 
sequent death. Such straw should be avoided as food, and used 
only for litter. The haulm of beans when well cured and saved, 
is both palatable and nutritious, and the leaves of corn-stalks fur- 
nish a food which is useful as a change of fodder, but is not nutri- 
tious enough of itself to support sheep in good condition. The 
relative values of the various dry fodders above mentioned may be 
estimated from the following tables, in which their composition 
and the proportion of actual nutritive matter contained are given. 

COMPOSITION OF HAT, STRAW, AND CORN-FODDER. 



m 100 PAETS OP 



Meadow Hay.. . 
Red Clover Hay 

Pea Straw 

Bean Straw 

Wheat Straw... 

Rye Straw , 

Barley Straw... 

Oat Straw 

Corn Fodder..., 



Water. 
14.3 


Ash 


Organic 
Matter. 


Ilesh 
Form- 
ers. 


Fat, 
Starch, 
(& Gum. 


6.2 


79.5 


8.2 


41.3 


16.7 


6.2 


77.1 


13.4 


29.9 


14.3 


4.0 


81.7 


6.5 


35.2 


17.3 


5.0 


77.7 


10.2 


33.5 


14.3 


5.5 


80.0 


2.0 


30.2 


14.2 


3.2 


82.5 


1.5 


27.0 


14.3 


7.0 


7S.7 


3.0 


32.7 


14.3 


5.0 


m.i 


2 5 


38.2 


14.0 


4.0 


82.0 


3.0 


39.0 



Crude 
fiber. 

30. 0~ 

35.8 

40.0 

34.0 

48.0 

54.0 

43.0 

40.0 

40.0 



FEEDII^G VALUE OF HAY AKD STKAW. 61 

The composition of clover hay here given is of that cut when in 
blossom. If cut when ripe, this hay has 4 per cent less of flesh- 
forming material, 9 per cent less of fat, starch, sugar, and gum, or 
material for forming fat and sustaining respiration, and over 12 per 
per cent more of crude fiber or indigestible matter. 



COMPAEATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUES OF HAY, STRAW, ETC., 
IN ONE HUNDRED PARTS. 

Meadow Hay (as the basis) is estimated at 10.0 

Clover Hay 13.5 

Pea Straw 16.5 

Bean Straw 18.6 

Wheat Straw ; 3.0 

Rye Straw 1.6 

Barley Straw 3.0 

Oat Straw 1.8 

Corn-fodder, (leaves), (estimated) 3.5 



The different quantities of these several fodders which would 
have to be fed to produce equal nutritive effects, may be tabulated 
as follows, each quantity given being equivalent to 10 pounds of 
common meadow hay of mixed grasses of standard quality. 

QUANTITIES OF VARIOUS FODDERS EQUAL TO 10 POUNDS OF 
HAY IN FEEDING VALUE. 

Meadow Hay 10 pounds. 

Clover Hay 8 " 

Pea Straw 6 " 

Bean Straw 51/2 " 

Wheat Straw 53 " 

Rye Straw 61 " 

Barley Straw 53 " 

Oat Straw 55 " 

Corn-fodder 40 " 

The last two tables must be taken with some qualifications. 
The values of these different articles of fodder are subject to very 
great variations, arising out of the conditions of their growth 
and the time and manner of harvesting, curing and preserving 
them. With the single exception of corn-fodder, however, the 
estimates here given will approach very nearly the actual feeding 
values as found in practice; the coni-fodder will be found of 
somewhat higher value than indicated by the above figures, esti- 
mated from a comparison of its constituents with those of oat 



62 THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 

straw. Generally, those "who have fed this material largely, and 
who have taken pains to harvest it when the corn is just glazed, 
and before the frost has stricken it, and to cure and house it care- 
fully, will agree that it at least more nearly approaches in value to 
good meadow hay than to oat straw, while some careful, intelli- 
gent, and observant feeders will insist that is very nearly, if not 
quite equal as fodder, to ordinary meadow hay. The impossibil- 
ity of subsisting sheep upon straw will be manifest when its value 
Is compared with that of hay; for if 3 pounds of hay would sup- 
f)ly a sheep of 100 lbs. live weight with sufficient nutriment to 
maintain it in a thriving condition, as it should do, 17 to 20 lbs. of 
straw would be required as an equivalent, which is a quantity that 
no sheep could possibly be made to consume. Therefore, when 
sheep are wintered in the straw yard, unless they have a sufficient 
supply of grain along with the small quantity of straw they can 
be made to consume, they must live in a state of semi-starvation, 
a condition in which unfortunately not a few flocks are expected 
to exist. Roots furnish a staple food of the greatest value for 
winter feeding of sheep. When fed in proper quantities, their 
laxative effect healthfully opposes the tendency of dry hay or 
straw to produce costiveness, and in addition they supply a con- 
siderable proportion of needed phosphates and sulphur for the 
growing animal and its fl-eece. But if fed in excess, the large 
quantity of water they contain, and their large bulk, especially 
when they are fed in the winter, reduce the temperature of the 
animal too much, and gradually act unfavorably on the health. 
When ewes in lamb are fed roots in any but very small quantities, 
abortion is frequently produced, and this ill effect has been noticed 
more conspicuously when the roots have been manured heavily 
with superphosphate of lime. This has been noticed by some ex- 
tensive feeders and breeders in England, where that fertilizer is 
largely used in root culture, and their experience should serve as 
a warning to us. The reason assigned for the loss of lambs by 
abortion when many turnips are fed, is not only that the foetus is 
affected by the presence of a mass of very cold matter in the stom- 
ach of the ewe, but that there is an irritation produced in the in- 
testines by this unacceptable food, which causes the death and ex- 
pulsion of the foetus. Nothing of the kind has occurred in flocks 
that have been largely fed on cooked roots, supplied at such a 
temperature that would prevent a chill to the animal. It may, 
therefore, be understood that it is the low temperature, generally 
near freezing, and often below it, at which the roots are given, 
and nothing in the roots themselves that act thus injuriously. 



FEEDING VALUE OF ROOTS. 



63 



Knowing this, the ill effect likely to be produced, may easily be 
avoided. 

The roots that are generally fed to sheep are sugar beets, man- 
gels, ruta-bagas, yellow turnips, and white or cow-horn turnips, and 
are to be preferred in the order in which they are here enumer- 
ated. Their comparative nutritive value may be gathered from 
the following table, the estimates in which are from analyses by 
Drs. Voelcker and Lankester : 

TABLE OF THE NUTEITIVE ELEMENTS OF ROOTS. 



IN 100 PARTS OF 



Sugar Beets 

Mangels 

Ruta-bagas.. 

Yellow Aberdeen Turnips 
White Globe Turnip 




Considering the large quantity of water contained in them, roots 
may be considered as highly nutritious food, and when fed in con- 
junction with dry fodder, and in proper proportions, are greatly 
conducive to the health and growth of the sheep. Their effect 
upon the quality of the wool, especially the lustrous wool of some 
of the long-wool sheep, is very favorable. The proper quantity 
of roots to be given depends upon the kind of sheep. As a 
safe guide, it may be estimated that one bushel of roots will be a 
sufficient daily allowance for 10 sheep weighing 150 lbs. each, live 
weight, if along with the roots, 1^ lb. of hay and i lb. of meal or 
bran per head be given. The question of food rations will, how- 
ever, be considered at length in another place. 

Grain, or preparations of grain of various kinds, furnish the 
concentrated foods, which are found needful to maintain sheep in 
a healthful condition, or to induce rapid growth and fattening for 
market. These foods exist in abundant variety, but no one alone 
can be fed with the greatest benefit for any length of time. A 
change of food is both acceptable to, and healthful for sheep, and 
the difference in the money value of these articles of food, which 
exists at nearly all times, makes it necessary to exercise a judi- 
cious choice in this respect, in order to secure the greatest profit. 
The feeding value of these various substances used as winter feed 
for sheep, varies greatly, as may be seen from the following table ; 



64 



THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 



COMPARATIVE NUTEITIVE VALUES OF GRAINS AND GRAIN 

PRODUCTS. 



m 100 PARTS OF 



Corn , 

Oats 

Barley 

Peas , 

Rye 

Beans 

Buckwheat 

Cotton-seed-cake without husks. , 

Peanut Cake . . 

Linseed Cake 

Bran, (Wheat) 

Bran, (Rye) 

Shorts, (Wheat) 

Malt Sprouts 

Malt 





§ 


g 


»^ 




^ 


5^, 


-o 


^ 


•^? 


■S.? 


^ 


*§ ^ 


s 




1 




1 


1 


14.4 


10.0 


68.8 


5.5 


14.3 


12.0 


60.9 


10.3 


14.3 


9.0 


65.9 


8.5 


14.3 


22.4 


52.3 


9.2 


14.3 


11.0 


69.2 


3.5 


14.5 


25.5 


45.5 


11.5 


14.0 


9.0 


59.6 


15.0 


8.3 


41.0 


*33.4 


9.0 


11.0 


40.00 


t38.5 


4.5 


11.5 


28.3 


41.3 


11.0 


13.1 


14.0 


50.0 


17.8 


12.5 


14.5 


53.5 


15.0 


11.65 


11.75 


64.42 


8.29 


8.0 


23.0 


44.7 


17.5 


4.2 


8.8 


76.3 


8.0 



* Of this 16 per cent consists of oil. t Of this 11 per cent consists of fat 



2.1 
3.0 
2.5 
2.5 
2 
3.5 
2.4 
8.3 
6.0 
7.9 
5.1 
4.5 
4.2 
6.8 
2.7 
and oil. 



The analyses here given, however, are but an obscure guide as 
regards the comparative values of the different substances for pro- 
ducing fat. It is very important to arrive at a clear idea of this 
in feeding sheep, because the quality of the wool depends greatly 
upon the secretion of a requisite amount of yolk which consists in 
great part of oil and a matter approaching in character to wax, 
to say nothing of the desirability of rapidly producing fat. The 
fat-forming elements in any article of food consist of starch, sugar, 
gum, oil, and fat, all carbonaceous matters, or matters rich in car- 
bon, with the addition of certain proportions of hydrogen and 
oxygen. The chemical composition of these elements is very sim- 
ilar, and in some of them is nearly identical. Thus an animal fed 
upon starch or sugar, may become fat, and it is well known that 
bees fed upon sugar are able to produce either honey or wax from 
this food. In the processes of digestion and assimilation, starch, 
sugar, and gum, are changed to fat. This fat is either consumed 
in the process of respiration, or is stored up in the tissues of the 
body, and increases the weight of the carcass. But in the con- 
sumption of food rich in starch, a much larger portion is necessary 
to produce a given weight of fat, or a given result in the process 
of respiration, than is required of a food rich in fat or oil. The 
relative values of fat or oil, and starch, as nutritive elements, is as 
one of the former to two and a half, nearly, of the latter, or exact- 
ly, as 10 is to 24 ; that is, 10 lbs. of oil or fat will go as far in pro- 
ducing fat or in maintaining respiration, and the natural heat of 



SELECTION OF FOOD. 65 

the body, in wliich process carbon is used up, as 24 lbs. of starch 
or sugar. Thus any food that contains 10 per cent of fat is of equal 
value to another which contains 24 per cent of starch. On ref- 
erence to the table it will be found that corn contains 68.8 per 
cent of fat formers, while cotton-seed-cake contains only 33 per 
cent. But corn contains 5 per cent of fat, and cotton-seed-cake 
16 per cent. The relative values of the two substances will 
therefore be as follows : 

starch, Fat^ \ Equivalent Total 

Sugar, etc. or S to Starch. Fat-formers. 

Corn 63.8 5.0 or 12.0 75.8 

Cotton-seed-meal 17.5 16. or 38.4 55.9 

If the quantities of flesh-forming elements of each are added to 
the above totals, it will be seen that cotton-seed-cake having four 
times as much flesh-formers as corn, is the cheaper food of the 
two. Again, whole flax-seed contains 55 per cent of fat-form- 
ing elements, but as 37 per cent of these consists of oil, which is 
equivalent to 88.8 per cent of starch, the total fat-forming power 
of flax-seed is therefore equal relatively to 106.8 per cent in pure 
starch. Cotton-seed free from the husk, and flax-seed, are there- 
fore the most nutritive articles of feed for fattening. It is worth 
while here to call attention to the high value of the peanut after 
the oil is expressed, as food for stock animals we possess. As a 
substitute for oil-cake-meal where it cannot be procured conve- 
niently, the following mixture has been suggested, viz : 

Ground Linseed 40 lbs. 

Wheat Bran 60 " 

Flour of Bone : 4 " —104 lbs. 

The constituents of which per 100 lbs. are : 

Flesh-formers, (albumen) 27 lbs. 

Fat-formers, (fat 11 pei cent) 51 " 

Ash or Saline Matter 7 " 

Water 15 " —100 lbs. 

This makes a most valuable combination of feeding substances for 
a young growing animal, or a ewe giving milk. The greater nu- 
tritive value of fat is explained by physiologists from the fact that 
it is directly digested and assimilated, and enters into the circula- 
tion and nutrition of the animal without change, except a very 
fine mechanical division of its particles. On the other hand, starch 
and sugar undergo a series of chemical transformations in the 
course of which much of their volume and effect are expended. 

In choosing a variety of food then, for a special object, as for 
instance the feeding of a young growing animal ; or the fattening 
of a mature animal and the sustenance of a sheep that produces a 



66 THE shephekd's manual. 

fleece rich in oil or yolk, as that of a pure-bred Merino, those 
foods which would furnish abundant flesh should be chosen for the 
one, and those rich in starch and oil for the others. By thus 
choosing judiciously and skillfully, there is an economy in the cost 
of the food, and the object sought is gained at the least expense. 

Much may be gained by varying or mixing the food of an ani- 
mal so as to stimulate the appetite ; for a healthy animal will in- 
crease in weight in proportion to the food consumed so long as di- 
gestion and assimilation are perfect. If a sheep only eat 3 lbs. 
of hay per day, but will eat and digest in addition 6 lbs. of sliced 
turnips or beets, with a pound of bran sprinkled upon them, a 
manifest advantage is gained. If changing the hay for straw, 10 
lbs. of turnips and 1 lb. of bran or oil-cake-mcal can be consumed, 
the money value of the food ma)'^ be reduced, and the sheep be 
equally well fed. 

In estimating the amount of a sheep's food, it is necessary to 
take into consideration the age and condition of the animal. 
Whether it be in a growing state or in a state of maturity, its 
weight, and also the drain upon its vitality, as in the case of a ram 
serving a number of ewes daily ; or a ewe in lamb, or suckling a 
lamb or a pair of them. On this account it is absolutely necessary 
to grade the flock and provide different quarters for those which 
need special feeding or care. As a guide for the estimation of a 
proper quantity of food, and for a judicious selection of the kinds 
which may be fed, it will be useful to consider the following 
instances. 

In an experiment recently made by Dr. Voelcker, the chemist 
of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, four sheep 
were fed for seven weeks upon 196 lbs. of clover hay, 49 lbs. of 
linseed-cake-meal, and 3,743 lbs. of mangels ; equal to a daily ra- 
tion for each of 1 lb. of clover hay, 4 ounces of linseed-cake-meal, 
and 191 lbs. of mangels. 

The nutritive elements contained in this daily ration were equiva- 
lent to 4i ounces of flesh formers, 53i ounces of fat formers, and 
4| ounces of mineral matter. 

UpoA this mixed diet the sheep thrived and gained weight -as 
follows : 

Gain in 
weight. 

171/4 lbs. 
171/4 " 
17 « 
20 " 





Weight at 
commencement. 


Weight at 
end of 7 weeks. 


No.l 

No. 2 

No. 3 

No. 4.... 


153 lbs. 
334" 
170 " 
135" 


1701/4 lbs. 

1511/4 " 
187 " 
155 « 



EXPERIMEKTS IN FEEDING. 67 

The gain on the average was equal to one pound in three days ; 
or an increase in weight of one pound for every 56 lbs. of food 
fed ; or for every 62 ounces of dry matter contained in the food. 
This is a very good instance of a typical fattening food for an or- 
dinary sheep of this size. The results of a large number of exper- 
iments made in feeding roots to sheep, go to show that 150 lbs. of 
ruta-bagas, or mangels, fed in open yards, or 100 lbs. fed in yards 
with sheds for protection, may be expected to produce one pound, 
of increase in live weight. When li lbs. of a mixed feed of oil- 
cake and peas were given daily, along with 18^ lbs. of ruta-bagas, 
fed under shelter, the gain was equal to 2 lbs. for every 100 lbs. of 
roots, and 4^ lbs. of mixed peas and oil-cake ; showing that 4i lbs. 
of peas and oil-cake produced an increase of one pound in the live 
weight. A number of experiments in feeding clover hay with 
linseed-oil-cake-meal, have established the fact that, allowing 6 lbs. 
of oil-cake-meal for one pound of increased live weight, it required 
11 to 13 lbs. of hay to make an equal gain. In feeding peas and 
beans with roots and hay, 8 lbs. of the mixed grain was found to 
produce an increase in weight of one pound. When oats were fed 
with the roots, there was one pound, of increased weight for 7 lbs. 
of the grain. When barley was substituted, 6 lbs. of the grain 
produced a gain of one pound. These interesting experiments are 
recorded in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, Vol. 
I, p. 169; Vol. VII, p. 295; Vol. VIII, pp. 27, 28, and 256; Vol. 
X, p. 358, and the Highland Society's Transactions ; and are sub- 
stantiated by experiments made by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of 
Rothamstead, in which they found that 272^ lbs. oil-cake, 252^ 
lbs. clover hay, and 3,753 lbs. ruta-bagas, fed together, produced 
100 lbs. of increase. These results must of course be accepted as 
subject to variations in the quality of the various feeds, the kind 
and condition of the sheep, the state of comfort and repose in 
which they are kept, and the care and attention given to them. 
But making every allowance for contingencies, it may be safe to 
estimate from these results, that the relative quantities of the diflfer- 
ent feeds required to produce one pound of flesh, are as follows 

Ruta-bagas fed in open yards 150 lbs. 

Ruta-bao;as fed under cover 100 " 

Good clover hay 12 " 

Beans or peas \[ 8 " 

Oats [[[ 7 a 

Barley ..'.'.'.'. 6 " 

Linseed-oil-cake-meal ,,\\ q " 

L]*Dseed-oil-cake-meal, and peas mixed ...'. 4i" 

The last quantity mentioned, curiously enough corroborates the 



68 THE shepherd's manual. 

personal experience of many shepherds, and the remark heretofore 
made to the effect that much is often gained by varying or mixing 
the diet of sheep. In this instance the same effect is gained by the 
use of three-fourths the quantity of the mixed feed, as by the 
whole quantity when given separately. The actual money cost of 
the feed may thus be estimated nearly enough for all practical 
purposes. In estimating the values of the kinds of food more 
commonly used in the United States and Canada, there are but 
few really trustworthy data to depend upon, as the careful experi- 
mental feeding of animals for scientific information, has rarely 
been attempted. We have nevertheless amongst the current agri- 
cultural literature of the day, many recorded results contributed 
by careful and eminently capable and trustworthy men. From 
amongst these the following have been selected as being practical 
and to the purpose. In an article communicated to the Country 
Gentleman, by the Hon. George Geddes, of Fairmount, N. Y., in 
May, 1875, are given, the cost of feeding, and the gain in weight of 
290 sheep fed by Mr. O. M. Watkins, of Onondaga County, during 
the previous winter, and particularly the cost, etc., during the 
month of January. The flock consisted of 100 grades, being half 
Merino and half Cotswold ; another 100 that were Merinos, and 90 
were called full-blooded Cotswolds, (probably high grades). All 
these sheep were fed alike, each having one pound of com daily 
— half of it fed early in the morning, the other half at sunset. 
Straw and chaff were fed during the day, and one feeding of hay 
at night. The corn was worth 80 cents for 60 pounds, the hay $10 
a ton. The quantity of hay fed was reported as equal to 1.3 
pounds to each sheep per day — making 40 pounds for the month, 
worth 20 cents. The corn for the same time was worth 41 cents, 
making the cost of corn and hay for each sheep for the month, 
61 cents. 

The 100 Merino and Cotswold grades increased from 117^ lbs. each 
to 1281^ pounds, this being a gain for each sheep of lOf pounds, and 
making the cost of each pound 5.67 cents. The 100 Merinos weighed 
Jan. 1, 94^ pounds each, and Feb. 1, lOli pounds— gaining 7i pounds 
each, at a cost of 8.4 cents. The 100 so-called full-blooded Cots- 
wolds weighed 118 pounds each Jan. 1, and Feb. 1, 123| — ^gaining 
only 5^ pounds each, at a cost of 11.6 cents per pound. Upon 
these facts, Mr. Geddes comments as follows : " The manure made 
during the time by these sheep, I consider worth more than the 
manure that would have been made by the same number of pounds 
of beef cattle. Thirty-two steers, each weighing 1,000 pounds, 
would almost exactly equal the total number of pounds of these 



PROFIT IN FEEDING. 69 

tliree flocks of sheep when they were weighed in the yards on the 
1st day of January. All the labor involved in feeding and taking 
care of the sheep, would not equal that of cleaning the stables for 
the steers. Mr. Watkins purchased the 390 sheep well, and sold 
them well, and he reports his winter's doings with them as follows : 

Cost of 290 sheep, (nearly 4c. per lb.), $1,260 61 

do. 435 bushels of corn, at 80c 348 00 

do. 13 tons of hay, SIO 130 00 $1,738 61 

Feb. 28th, sold 270 at $8 each 2,160 00 

do. do. 18 culls, $4 each 72 00 

Two sheep got cast ; sold pelts for $2 each. 4 00 2,236 00 

Profit $497 39 

" This pays over $1.71 for the trouble of buying and selling and 
risk on each sheep, if we call the manure pay for the labor of carmg 
for the sheep. The price of hay is here very low this season, but 
corn is very high. Straw and chaff we consider as of but little 
value for manure, unless worked over by the feet of some animal, 
and used as an absorbent for their manure. For this reason we 
credit the sheep with the work of converting a large quantity of 
straw and chaff into available food for plants. 

*' I do not give Mr. Watkins' experience as an average, for it is 
far better than any average that he can make for a series of years. 
Nor do I think it is by any means conclusive as between the 
breeds of sheep that he fed. The grade Merino and Cotswold I 
sold him the 21st day of last December. They were all ewes, 3 
and 3 years old, and were a very even, and in all respects a desira- 
ble lot. The other flocks I did not see, but I suppose, from in- 
formation, that they were not so even or desirable ; and sheep here 
usually called full-blooded Cotswolds, come from Canada or the 
border, and are not very good, perhaps they are mostly the culls 
of the flocks they came from. After all reasonable allowances 
have been made, the lesson of this winter's work of Mr. Watkins 
is certainly that sheep are much more profitable makers of meat 
than steers, such as can be bought m Buffalo in the fall of the year, 
and they are still better manufacturers of straw and other coarse 
forage into manure." 

Both the facts here given, and the relator's comments, are very 
valuable. From the statement as to feed and gain in weight, the 
following deductions as to the value of the corn fed for producing 
increase of weight, may be made. Taking the three flocks, we 
have the following results for each, accepting the feeding value of 
hay as previously given, as a basis for a portion of the increase : 



70 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

GRADE MERINO AND COTSWOLD, AVERAGE GAIN, lOf LBS. 

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 

40 lbs. of hay. 31/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 

30 lbs. of corn. 71/2 lbs. 4 lbs. 

MEKINOS, AVERAGE GAIN, 71/4 LBS. 

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 
40 lbs. hay. 81/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 

30 lbs. corn. 4 lbs. 71/2 lbs. 

COTSWOLDS, AVERAGE GAIN, 5V4 LBS. 

Feed consumed. Gain in weight. lbs. of feed for 1 lb. of gain. 
40 lbs. hay. 81/4 lbs. 12 lbs. 

30 lbs. corn. 2 lbs. 15 lbs. 

These different flocks were evidently uneven in quality, and as 
Mr. Geddes, who sold the first flock to Mr. Watkins, is an excellent 
and experienced farmer and stock feeder, it may easily be sup- 
posed that the sheep were in excellent condition and well pre- 
pared for fattening. The productive value of corn, in the case of 
this flock, may well be considered as exaggerated, as in the other 
instances it would be diminished by reason of the poorer quality 
of the sheep. A mean may therefore be taken, and the gain result- 
ing from feeding the corn estimated as between the two gains 
of 4 and 7^, thus giving an average of about 6 lbs. , and bringing 
corn to an equality of value with barley or linseed cake, if not 
showing it to be superior to either. If the result of feeding the 
first flock be taken as the basis for the estimate, it would certainly 
show com to be a feed of the highest value for fattening sheep ; 
but one result can hardly serve as a basis upon which to found 
such a rule. Mr. R. J. Swan, of Geneva, N. Y., in a communica- 
tion in the Third Vol. of Rural Affairs, stated his plan of winter 
feeding ; he gives to each hundred fattening sheep, two bushels, 
(126 lbs.), of corn, or the same quantity of oil-cake-meal per day, 
with wheat straw in racks three times a day, up to the 1st day of 
March ; afterwards feeding hay instead of straw, and reducing the 
corn or oil-cake-meal one-half. The lambs are fed hay three times 
a day, with three pecks of oil-cake-meal, or corn-meal, per 100. It 
is to be presumed that hay is fed ad libitum, although this account 
would have been more satisfactory had the quantity fed been 
stated. In a prize essay by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany County, 
N. Y., the following hints for the winter feeding of sheep are 
given : " By feeding liberally with roots, and not too much grain, 
during the first week at least, the change from green feed to dry 
will be less apt to affect the sheep. In feeding, unless a person 
can do it himself, which is very seldom the case, the feeder should 



METHOD OF WHITER FEEDING. 71 

be instructed with great care, liow much grain is to go to each 
yard or stable according to the animals it contains. An over-feed 
at the commencement is almost sure to bring on the scours, and 
after the sheep are over it, it will take at least two weeks' good 
feeding to put them where they started from. My mode, to avoid 
mistakes, is to number my yards and stables, and count the sheep 
in each yard and stable — allowing to each sheep one-half pint of 
grain per day to start with, unless they have been fed grain pre- 
viously, when I allow a little more. I then make out a schedule 
thus : No. 1 — 60 sheep at one-half pint per day is 15 quarts, which 
divided into two feeds, is 7i quarts to a feed ; so I write on the 
schedule, * No. 1 — 60 sheep must have 7i quarts at a feed morning 
and night,' — No. 2 at the same rate according to number, and so 
on until I get them all. This paper is tacked up in the place 
where the feed is kept, and by going with the feeder a few times 
to show him and see that he makes no mistakes, if he is a good 
man he can do it as well as the farmer himself. As soon as the 
feed is to be increased, a new schedule is made out accordingly, 
and so on, until the sheep are fed one quart each per day, when I 
consider them on full feed, especially if the feed is corn, beans, or 
oil-meal, or a mixture of either. If oats or buckwheat compose 
part of their feed, they should have a little more. Regularity of 
hours is very important. Sheep should not be fed one morning at 
five o'clock, the next at six, and the third at seven. Our rule is 
this : Grain and oil-meal are fed at half-past five a.m. As soon as 
the grain is finished, hay is given — no more than the sheep will 
eat clean. The different yards and stables are carefully fed each 
day i}i tlie same order, which is important to avoid confusion and 
mistakes — beginning with No. 1, and so on through the list. 
After breakfast, water is given, going around twice to see that all 
are well supplied. The roots are next cut, (ruta-bagas, which I 
consider best), and of these to my present stock of about 350 sheep, 
I am now feeding 10 bushels a day. At eleven o'clock straw is 
fed. Twelve is the dinner hour, and immediately after dinner the 
roots are fed. The troughs and tubs are now all examined, and 
replenished with water if necessary — also salt, salt and ashes, 
browse, litter, and anything else that may be needed, is supplied. 
The evening and next morning's feeds of grain and oil-meal are 
next prepared, and hay got ready for both night and morning. 
At 4 P.M. feeding the grain is again commenced, followed as before 
by hay, after which the water tubs and troughs are emptied and 
turned over, and the work is finished for the night." 
The value of roots for winter feeding is very inadequately esti- 



72 THE shepherd's manual. 

mated in the United States, but it may be well questioned if a flock 
of sheep can be profitably or successfully kept without them. A 
certain portion of water must be taken with the food every day. 
The more intimately this is mixed with the food, the better for the 
digestive process. In faeding 12 lbs. of roots to a sheep 80 to 90 
per cent, or 4^ to 5 qts. of water are given in them. By the pro- 
cess of mastication the water is intimately mixed with the solid 
matter, and a semi-liquid pulp is formed exactly fitted for the ru- 
minative and digestive processes of the stomach. By cutting or 
pulping the roots, and sprinkling or mixing the ration of meal, 
bran, or grain, upon or with them, the whole food reaches the 
stomach in the most appropriate condition possible. Digestion 
proceeds uniformly, the stomach does not need to be supplied 
with a large quantity of water at any time, and its solvent juices 
are not diluted and weakened. The bowels act regularly, and 
constipation, one of the most troublesome disorders of the flock 
when on dry food, is avoided and prevented. But the daily ration 
of roots must be apportioned with care and judgment. For lambs 
5 to 6 lbs. daily will be sufficient ; for two-year-olds and mature 
sheep, 10 to 15 lbs. will be an ample allowance ; the smaller quan- 
tity being enough for a Southdown, and the larger for a full grown 
Cotswold, Leicester, or Lincoln. For a Merino a much less 
quantity should be apportioned, as this breed cannot produce a 
fleece of good quality, or great weight, without being supplied with 
enough oily matter to secrete the large amount of yolk which their 
fleece contains. 

Of all the roots usually grown, the sugar-beet is the best for 
sheep, being the most palatable, and containing the greatest pro- 
portion of solid nutritious matter. For every 100 sheep to be fed 
with roots at the rate of ten pounds per head per day, during the 
feeding season of 5 months, about 4 acres devoted to this crop will 
be required, yielding about 18 tons, or 550 to 600 bushels per acre. 
This is a small estimate, and only half the yield of a good or a 
possible crop, but is near that of our average crops. The amount 
of food necessary to keep a sheep in good thrifty condition has 
been determined to be 15 pounds of actually dry substance per 
week for each 100 lbs. of live weight. As grain and hay contain 
about 14 per cent of water, this allowance will be equal to about 
18 lbs. of hay or grain, or nearly 3 lbs. per day. But as for the 
perfect digestion of the food, a certain bulk is requisite, the mixed 
daily ration should be composed of such proportions of bulky and 
concentrated food, that 7 to 9 pounds are required to produce an 
increase of one pound in live weight. From the data previously 



liAISING LAMBS FOK MAKKET. 73 

given, it will not be difficult for the intelligent reader and shepherd 
to arrive at a correct judgment, and conform his plan of feeding 
to the peculiar circumstances of his flock, and with a view to the 
greatest profit. 

EAKLY MARKET LAMBS. 

There are some special ©bjects in the winter feeding of sheep 
which require particular methods of management to ensure suc- 
cess. In regard to feeding store sheep, and when the chief object 
is the increase of the flock, and the healthful growth of the fleece, 
nothing need be said be3'^ond what has been given in the jDreced- 
ing pages. But special management is needed for the production 
of early market lambs, and for the fattening of sheep purchased to 
ensure profit both in money and manure ; in regard to these cases 
some special explanation may be pertinent. The production ot 
market lambs, if rightly managed, may be made very profitable. I 
Tins business maybe followed on a suitable farm anywhere within. 
150 miles of a good market. The markets for lambs arc found 
chiefly in the large cities, Washington, New York, Boston, Phila- 
delphia, Baltimore, and Albany being the chief eastern markets, 
and St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Chicago, the chief western ones. 
Some few of the southern cities offer good markets for lambs early 
in the spring, April, Ma}'', and June are the months when the 
prices are the most remunerative ; after June the prices per pound 
for lambs are but little more than those for sheep. In April and 
May, a lamb weighing 40 pounds will often sell for $10. Those 
farmers who make the raising of early lambs a special business, 
follow one of two methods. In one case they keep a permanent 
flock of ewes, selected for their good . character as nurses and 
milkers, quiet in disposition, docile, and easily managed, and ready 
to act as foster mothers to other lambs whose mothers have 
been sent away. The other plan is to purchase, late in the sum- 
mer, a flock of ewes, as well selected as may be, from which to 
raise a crop of spring lambs ; the ewes are then shorn, and after- 
wards fattened and sent to market before the year is complete. 
Which of these two methods would be the best to adopt depends 
upon circumstances. The first plan needs for its successful opera- , 
tion a farm suitable for pasturing sheep, or which has at least 
sufficient suitable summer pasture for the flock. For the second 
plan little or no pasture is required ; a rough field in which the / 
ewes may run while being fed for market, or a run upon the clover 
sod to be plowed for corn in May, being all that is required. A 
4 ! 



74 THE shepherd's manual. 

stock of ruta-bagas, which keep in excellent condition until June, 
if needed so long, is provided as a substitute for grass while the 
ewes are being fattened. This latter plan is well suited as an 
additional industry upon grain or dairy farms, in which some 
additional capital may be turned over with a prospect of its being 
returned in less than a year with a gain of 100 per cent in money, 
besides a valuable addition to the manure heap. 

The selection of ewes and a ram from which to raise market 
lambs, is the chief point for consideration, the wool being a sec- 
ondary object. The form of the sheep and their temperament are 
the first points to be regarded in their selection ; but if the flock is 
to be kept permanently, it is best to procure sheep which will 
yield a good fleece as well as a good lamb, as this will add to the 
profit. Single lambs of good size, are more profitable than twins, 
which will generally be of smaller growth. It matters little 
about the breed, as this is not a point with the marketmen, although 
a black-faced Southdown is most in favor with them, because of 
/ 1 its usual plumpness and fatness. A lamb from a grade Merino 
ewe, and a Southdown or Shropshire ram, is fat at any age, and is 
soon ripe for market, and will sell better than a larger lamb that 
is more bony and less plump. A cross from a grade Merino ewe 
and a Cotswold ram, is the next best lamb, if not altogether as 
good a one. A large bodied, short-legged, broad backed, native 
ewe, with some Merino and Southdown blood in her composition, 
is, perhaps, all things considered, the best sheep that can be chosen 
for a dam. A pure bred Southdown, Shropshire, or Cotswold ram, 
makes the best sire, the preference to be given in the order in 
which they are here named. Ewes that produce twins should be 
weeded out of the flock, and those which bring a large lamb, and 
have plenty of milk, and are gentle and kind to their lambs, should 
be kept as long as they will breed. Ewes have been kept until 13 
years old that have yearly brought and raised a lamb to maturity 
for market, without missing a season, or losing a lamb. One ewe 
of this kind may be made to pay the interest on $100 each year, 
and it would be well to raise the ewe lambs of such choice dams 
to replenish the flock. Some ewes will j-aise twins, and by skill- 
ful management, a ewe whose lamb has been sold may be made 
to foster another lamb, or at least be forced to help feed it. If the 
ewe shows any reluctance to adopt the strange lamb, she should 
be confined in a small pen, at stated times, and the hungry lamb 
turned in to her. The lamb will generally succeed in getting all 
the milk from her. If she is more than usually reluctant, she 
should be held while the lamb sucks, or be confined in stanchions 



CHOOSING THE EWES. 75 

(as described in a previous chapter), for a time, until she becomes 
reconciled. The ewes thus made to serve as foster mothers will, 
after two or three seasons, accept the situation, and readily adopt 
the second lamb. In some flocks a lamb has occasionally sucked 
three ewes, and in some cases, some enterprising lambs will forao-e 
around and get a meal from any ewe that will permit it to suck. 
It will be necessary to curb the enterprise of such lambs occasion- 
ally, lest they rob the others. When a flock of ewes is purchased 
each year, in August or early in September, they must necessarily 
be picked up in the most convenient manner, either from passing 
droves, or some well known drover may be engaged to procure 
1 them.' Fairly good ewes may generally be procured by either of 
/ these methods for about $3 per head. In selecting ewes from a 
/ drove, care should be taken to examine the teeth to ascertain their 
\ age, and none less than three or four jijars old, or what are called 
"full mouthed" ewes, should be chosen. The ram should be 
chosen in this case'lis'iii^the previous one. Whatever breed may 
be selected, compactness of form and vigor should be looked for, 
rather than size ; a moderate sized ram, with a large roomy ewe, 
will produce a better lamb than a pair of the opposite characters. 
High condition in the ram is not desirable ; a mejieJxJair condition 
is more conducive to certainty in getting lambs ; nor in this busi- 
ness is it best to confine the ram ; the exercise with the flock being 
better for the animal's health than confinement. If the flock is 
too large for the one ram, it should be divided and separated, or 
two rams used, each being shut up on alternate days ; no more than 
50 ewes can be served by one ram in the time during which the 
service is required — or at most 40 to 60 days — for this is the time 
during which the season for selling lambs continues. The ram 
shojild-aot be lesslhan three years of _ age. As ewes go five months, i 
or about 150 days with young, those ewes that are served in the 
latter part of August will have lambs in January, and these lambs, j 
without any forcing, can be made marketable in April. All of the ' 
lambs should be dropped before the middle of March, and it will 
be found advisable and convenient to so apportion the ewes to be 
served, that the dropping of the lambs may be spread over the 
whole of this period as regularly as possible. The presence of 
dogs about a flock of this character should not be permitted. 
They are not only entirely useless, but are really an annoyance and 
an injury. After the lamb is a few days old, if thought necessary, 
it may be taught to suck some warmed, sweetened cow's milk, and 
any help to its growth, in the shape of extra food, will be useful. 
There is danger, liowever, of over-feeding a young lamb, which 



76 



THE SHEPHERDS MAKUAL. 



may be worse than under-feedmg it, and caution is to be exercised 
in this respect ; no more should be attempted than to encourage q 
healthy, thrifty growth. After the lamb is four weeks old, it may 
be taught to lick some fine brau, with a little salt mixed with it, or 
a little sifted oatmeal. As a rule, it will be safer to depend on 
increasing and enriching the ewe's milk, rather than to forc& the 
lamb to swallow food which its stomach is not as yet able to com- 
pletely digest. It is highly important to prevent the lambs from 
being annoyed and depleted of their blood by ticks or other vermin. 
To this end the ewes should be dipped in the fall to rid them of 
ticks, and if a few should appear in the spring upon the lambs, 
they should be freed from the insect pests by careful hand-picking, 




Fig. 28. — ^PACKING BOX FOR LAMBS. 

repeated if necessary. In case the ticks should be too numerous 
for hand-picking, the lambs may be dipped. This will be abso- 
lutely necessary if they are to be kept until after the ewes are 
shorn, as then the ticks will leave the ewes on which they are 
unsheltered, and seek refuge in the closer fleeces of the lambs. 
When this happens, the growth of the lambs is suddenly stopped, 
and it is often the case that some of them are tormented until they 
finally die. 

The marketing of the lambs is one of the most important parts 
of the business so far as profits are concerned. As has been said, | 
the early lambs bring the highest prices, but it may be that the later ; 
lambs will be found the most profitable, as being less costly and/ 
troublesome to rear. When the proper market has been found,; 



PROFIT IK RAISING LAMBS. 77 

and a trustworthy commission agent to whom they can be sent for 
sale has been selected, the method of packing for shipment should 
be well considered. A roomy box, in which the iamb can stand 
or lie, but cannot turn round, should be procured for each lamb. 
Figure 28 represents a crate in which the author has shipped many 
lambs to market without a single case of accident from any cause. 
The size is 36 inches long, 34 inches high, and 18 inches wide. It 
is made of lath 2 inches wide by 3 quarters thick. The best fast- 
ening for the top was found to be four pieces of soft twisted tarred 
hempen cord of the kind known as lath twine, and used for tying 
bundles of laths, at the saw mills. This form of box is also suit- 
able for shipping stock lambs ; these have been safely sent in them 
from New York to Charleston, S. C, and also as far as Denver, 
Col. In case of shipping to a distance, a bag of feed is tied to one 
of the upper corners of the box, containing suflScient to last through 
the journey, and a feed trough is fixed at each end of the box, so 
that in case the lamb is carelessly put in Wrong end foremost, or 
happens to turn around, a trough is ready for use where it is 
wanted. On the shipping card should be plainly printed directions 
to the express agent to give half a pint of feed and water twice a 
day to the lamb. Shipments for short distances should always 
be made by express, so that there may be no delays. The time of 
shipment should be so arranged that the commission agent may 
be on hand to attend to the lambs on their arrival. For distances 
of not over 100 miles, the time of travel is so short that no feed or 
water is needed on the way, but the lambs may be fed lightly 
and watered before they are placed in the boxes. In this way the 
lambs travel with so little inconvenience that no loss of weight 
occurs, a matter which, when the price is 25 cents a pound, is 
worth consideration. The business of marketing lambs is exten- 
sively carried on in the neighborhood of large cities in the east, 
and thousands of ewes are yearly purchased in Ohio and western 
parts of New York and Pennsylvania by drovers from New Jersey, 
and eastern New York, and Pennsylvania, in the early fall, for 
selling to farmers who keep them over winter, raise lambs the 
next spring, and sell lamb's fleeces, and the fattened sheep within 
twelve months, and repeat the operation yearly with great profit. 
As an illustration of what may be done in this way, the following 
may be cited : " Fifty-five ewes were purchased at $3 per head, and I 
until winter were pastured in a rough field at the rear of the farm,! 
where they more than earned their keep and care, by the service 
they performed in destroying weeds. The account for one year, 
opened and kept expressly for this flock, is as follows : 



78 THE shepherd's maitual. 

Db. 

Cost of 55 sheep $165.00 

Value of hay, turnips, bran, meal, and oil-cake, fed. 205.84 

Freight and charges on 24 lambs 7,93 

Balance of profit and loss 145.64 

$524.40 

Ck. 

24 early lambs sold at from $7 @ $10 each $192.00 

8 lambs, @ $4.50 36.00 

12 lambs, @ $3.50 42.00 

8 lambs kept, @ $4.00 32.00 

9 lbs. pulled wool, @ 30c 2.70 

182 lbs. of wool, @ 35c 63.70 

52 sheep on hand ( 3 killed by dogs) 156.00 

$524.40 

This leaves a profit of nearly 100 per cent, on the original cost 
of the sheep, and in addition a large pile of valuable manure, of 
which no account was kept." 

FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET. 

Where the distance from market prevents profitable shipments, 
and the home market furnishes insufficient encouragement to 
breed early lambs, the purchase of sheep for fattening may be 
made a special business with great advantage. In this business 
the proper choice of sheep and shrewdness in purchasing are as 
necessary to success as are skill in feeding and choice of proper! 
food. Where grades of Leicester or Cotswold sheep, such as ar^ 
known in the American markets as Canada sheep, can be secured^ 
those are the most profitable to purchase. The next best sheep ar^ 
grade Southdowns ; but little profit is to be made out of our native\ 
sheep in feeding them for mutton. They are„ppor feeders, and j 
difficult to clothe with flesh or fat, and the farmer who would pur- ; 
chase sheep to feed for profit, should avoid them. He had better j 
keep such sheep for breeding, crossing them with a thoroughbred! 
Cotswold ram and feeding the produce. J 

A statement given by Mr. Jurian Winne, of Albany Co., N, Y., 
in the Annual Kegister of Rural Affairs for 1867-8-9, will be found 
of interest. In this case two lots of sheep from a large flock were 
set apart for feeding ; they consisted of 60 grade Leicesters from 
Canada, and 61 Merinos; they were weighed Feb. 10th, and a 
careful account was kept of the food consumed during 46 days, up 
to March 28th, when they were weighed and sent to market. 
The selection was simply made as a test, and to avoid the trouble 



VALUE OF SHEEP MANURE. 79 

of keeping an accurate account of the whole flock, which were 
treated in exactly the same manner as these. The following 
figures give the result : 

Feb. 20, 60 s^rade Leicesters weighed 8,870 lbs. 

March 28, 60 grade Leicesters weighed 9,878 lbs. 

Gain in weight 1,008 lbs. 

Feb. 20, 61 Merinos weighed 6,909 lbs. 

March 28, 61 Merinos weighed 7,389 lbs. 

Gain in weight 480 lbs. 

Cost of feed for the first lot $174.43 

Cost of feed for the second lot 144.78 

Against the cost of feed there are the gain in weight at lOf and 
10. i cents a pound respectively, the advance in price upon the 
whole weight, consequent upon the improved condition of the 
sheep, and the manure left. On the wlioie, there was a profit upon 
the first lot and a loss on the second one. Experience teaches that 
the proper selection of the breed of sheep is a very important con- 
sideration. It would be wise for such as have not had experience, 
and who do not understand how to choose sheep for feeding, as 
well as how to feed and market them judiciously, to avoid the 
business, until by small ventures, they have learned how to succeed 
with larger ones. To buy judiciously is the great point, for " a 
flock well bought is half sold." 

Value of Matsure. — The manure of sheep is naturally rich ; 
their mastication and digestion are so perfect that seeds of weeds 
are utterly destroyed in the passage through their intestines, and 
additional value is readily given to the manure by feeding a por- 
tion of concentrated food, such as oil-cakes, corn-meal, or bran. 
The urine and dung of the sheep are both very rich in fertilizing 
elements. The urine contains 28 parts in 1,000 of urea, which is a 
highly nitrogenized substance, and 12 parts in 1,000 of salts, rich 
in phosphoric acid ; the remainder is water. The fresh dung con- 
tains : 

Of water 68.0 per cent. 

Animal and vegetable matter 19.3 per cent. 

Saline matter or ash 12.7 per cent. 

100.00 per cent. 

The organic matter is rich in nitrogen, so much so, that 36 parts 
of the dung contains as much nitrogen as 54 parts of horse dung, 
63 parts of pig's dung, 125 parts of cow's dung, and 100 parts of 
mixed barn-yard manure. The manure yielded is dry, and con- 
tains less water than that of other farm animals ; thus for 100 lbs. 



80 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 

of dry fodder, tlie horse or cow yields 216 lbs. of fresh manure — 
equal to 46 lbs. dry — while the sheep gives but 128 lbs. of moist 
manure — equal to 43 lbs. dry. It ferments very quickly, and needs 
therefore to be kept solidly packed under foot, and free from 
access of air, or to be turned frequently when heaped in the yard. 
When the manure, made in the ordinary course of feeding, pos- 
sesses this high relative value, it may readily be believed that when 
fattening sheep are highly fed with stimulating food rich in albu- 
men and phosphates, the starch and oil only being assimilated in 
the production of fat, and the others being used only in part — 
their dung forms a very rich and valuable manure. This is thor- 
oughly well understood by English farmers, who practise the 
feeding of sheep more v>^ith a view to the value of their manure 
than for profit in other ways, and it is unfortunate for us that we 
do not so thoroughly appreciate this as to practise it ourselves. The 
following quotation from a paper upon this subject, read by an 
English farmer at a meeting of a farmers' club, and reported in an 
English agricultural journal, very clearly sets forth this view : 

" The manurial value of oil-cake, when used regularly on a farm, 
can scarcely be over-estimated, the dung made in the stalls being 
so vastly enriched as to enable it to be spread over an extended 
acreage, with better results than could possibly be obtained from 
the same bulk alone, whatever the area to which it might be ap- 
plied, and the efiect is discernible on the color and quality of the 
pasture for a much longer period. The improvement effected on 
grass-land by cake-fed stock is an example of the utility and value 
of this excellent food which every one can understand, its action 
in this way being quicker, and so distinct as to be unmistakable. 
With sheep the improvement is peculiarly striking when netted 
[confined by nets or hurdles] over a pasture field and largely cake- 
fed, the droppings, both liquid and solid, being so regularly dis- 
tributed over the surface, that every rootlet is reached and nour- 
ished, and the herbage is accordingly forced into extraordinary 
luxuriance." 

Another special branch of sheep keeping, which offers advan- 
tages to farmers favorably situated for it, is the raising of a good 
class of sheep to meet the demands of those who purchase for the 
purpose of raising lambs, or for winter feeding and fattening. 
Where markets are too distant to enable these branches of sheep 
husbandry to be profitably followed, a good class of stockers or 
drover's sheep might be raised. Half-bred, long-wool mutton sheep 
could be raised in every w^estern state and shipped to the great cen- 
tral markets of Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis, Buffalo, and else- 



BREEDS OF SHEEP. 81 

where, to be disposed of to drovers, or to farmers themselves who 
are seeking a supply of store sheep. This would give an oppor- 
tunity of increasing the supply of long wool, so much needed, and 
of decreasing that of fine wool now too plentiful to maintain prices 
satisfactory to fine wool growers. The season for marketing these 
sheep would be in August and September, the time in which they 
are most in demand, and one in which the western pastures gener- 
ally fail. It may be that in a few years, at some or all of these 
points, and many others, there may yet be seen great sheep mar- 
kets at stated periods, something like those of Ireland, Scotland, or 
England, at which 40,000 to 80,000 sheep arc offered for sale, and 
bought and paid for in a couple of days. When sheep breeding 
becomes fully developed in America, these markets will probably 
have been found needful, and have grown and developed from 
necessity, as has been the case elsewhere, and such an economical 
and convenient division of labor as this may become a regular and 
systematic part of the business of sheep farming. 



CHAPTER V. 

BREEDING AND BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

The strength and vigor that results from the fixity of type, 
which is so marked a characteristic of wild races of animals, come 
through what is called the natural selection of parents. It is the 
natural force and strength of the most vigorous in perpetuating 
their kind, together with the hardening influences of exposure, 
which give them their strong constitution and great power to 
resist misfortune. The race is perpetuated only by the strongest, 
because weaker members perish from the hardships necessarily 
borne by a wild race, or are driven ofi" or destroyed in the desper- 
ate conflicts which occur between the males at the breeding season. 
To gain strength and vigor, the most skillful breeder could follow 
no more effective course than the one here indicated. The natural 
power possessed by the thoroughbred male animal to transmit his 
qualities, which power is recognized amongst breeders by the 
term " prepotency," fixes the type of the race which through this 
influence becomes homogeneous ; every member presenting exactly 
the same character in form and habit. But when a race of ani- 



82 THE shepherd's manual. 

mals becomes domesticated, necessities arise which call for some- 
thing more than mere vigor of constitution, although this should 
always remain a vital point in the breeders estimation. The sole 
aim of the stock breeder is profit, and this lies not so much in a 
long life as in early maturity. The total result of six or ten years of 
the life of a wild animal is crowded into two or four years of a 
domesticated one. The capacity for consumption of food, and the 
ability to turn a larger quantity of food into flesh or wool in a 
shorter time are gained by the skill of the breeder, and in course of 
time the quality of the product is refined and improved until hardly 
a semblance of the original stock remains in the highly-bred, im- 
proved animal. The rapidity with which these effects have been 
produced by some of the most skillful sheep-breeders is wonderful, 
and the names of Bakewell and Webb will be remembered, and 
then* successes perseveringly emulated for many years to come. 
Ko animal is more easily improved in character, and none yields 
more readily to the breeder's art, than the sheep. But the reverse 
is also true, for if on the one hand success rapidly rewards the 
successful breeder, failure as rapidly warns the unsuccessful one 
that he has made a mistake, and must immediately retrace his 
steps. 

The management and selection of any existing breed of sheep, or 
of the production of any new breed or variety, must be a question 
of profit. The point for the farmer to consider is, what kind of 
sheep will pay him best to keep, taking into consideration his 
locality, his soil, the crops he can conveniently raise with which 
to sustain them, and his markets for disposing of his wool and his 
animals, whether as lambs or as store sheep, or fat sheep fit for 
the butcher. For want of thorough acquaintance with the habits, 
characteristics, and peculiarities of the various breeds, many a 
farmer has made a fatal mistake, and failed, when otherwise he 
might easily have been successful. The results of these mistakes 
in selection, and errors of management, have led to much dis- 
appointment and disgust. One of the most serious errors of our 
breeders and farmers, is the endeavor to maintain up to a 
certain standard of excellence in this country, in spite of all the 
differences of climate and varieties of food, the highly bred races 
of English sheep, which have been imported from time to time. 
Nearly every flock of all the pure races has failed to keep up to 
the original standard, although new importations have been added 
to them. The farmer who has purchased a few sheep from such 
flocks, being without the requisite knowledge as to their manage- 
ment, or not possessing the fittuig food for them, has found them 



SELECTION OE BREEDING ANIMALS. 83 

to dwindle away from day to day until only a sorry remnant has 
been left wliich has been finally absorbed into a flock of hardier 
natives, or has disappeared altogether. Had these farmers judi- 
ciously purchased male animals only, and used them, under 
proper restrictions, for the improvement of their native sheep, 
they would in time have possessed flocks which they could have 
managed successfully and profitably, and have secured a perma- 
nent type suited to their locality and circumstances. But the 
improvement of a flock by breeding requires much patience and 
perseverance, and a fixed idea of some result to be gained. In 
breeding, good results rarely come by hap-hazard or accident. 
There must be a distinct end in view, and there must be appropri- 
ate and painstaking eflbrts made to reach that end. The breeder 
must have a clear idea, not only of what he wants to gain, but of 
what he wishes to get rid of, and he must know the character of 
his flock intimately. One who knows all this can so accurately 
describe the kind of ram he needs to improve his flock, that a 
conscientious breeder from whom he may purchase the needed 
animal, can choose him as well, if not better, than he can himself. 

In breeding to improve a flock, the qualities of both parents 
must be considered, remembering that the male exercises the 
greater influence in determining the character of the ofl'spring. A 
pure-bred Cotswold ram, crossed upon a Merino ewe, for instance, 
will produce an ofi*spring that much more resembles himself than 
it does the dam. This principle is well recognized amongst breed- 
ers. Nevertheless, the very best of the females should be chosen, 
and the faulty lambs culled out each year, until the finest only 
remain. During this time it would be prudent for the farmer to 
retain no males of his own breeding, but to secure by purchase or 
hire from some capable professional breeder, such changes of 
males as may be necessary. Much good may be done by unselfish 
breeders in the way of letting pure-bred rams for a fair considera- 
tion to neighboring farmers who may not have the means to 
purchase one outright. Bj changing rams occasionally, two 
farmers may very profitably help each other without expending a 
dollar for the necessary new blood. 

The points sought for in rams, with which to improve a flock, 
are those which directly add to the value of the sheep, or those 
which are evidence of the possession of valuable qualities. Thus 
the abundance of yolk, or the fineness of the wool, or its curl, or 
the depth or form of carcass, upon which depends the quality and 
the quantity of the fleece, are esteemed in the Merinos ; in the 
Southdown, the small head and leg, and small bones, with the 



84 THE shepherd's manual. 

! black muzzle and legs are highly regarded, as these denote quick 
fattening properties, and hardiness of constitution. The breadth 
of shoulder, the straightness and levelness of the back, the breadth 
of loin, and the spring of the ribs and rotundity of the frame of 
the Cotswold, Leicester, and other heavy -bodied sheep, indicate 
capacity for feeding and digestion, and laying on of flesh, and are 
therefore regarded as valuable points. Large bones are an unfavor- 
able point, as they denote an abstraction of nutriment which 
should otherwise go to the formation of flesh and the greater 
value of the carcass. The absence of horns, for the same reason, 
is desirable in sheep bred for mutton. A soft, mellow feeling of 
jskin and the tissue underneath, and a softness of the fleece, are 
i indicative of a tendency to the rapid formation of fat. A round 
i frame and broad loin indicate the existence of abundant flesh, 
'where it is the most valuable, and a general squareness of the out- 
line of the figure proves the existence of large muscular develop- 
; ment and consequently heavy quarters. In short, for sheep which 
are not kept solely for the production of wool, what is wanted is, 
all the flesh possible with no more bone than can carry it, and that 
the flesh should be where it will be the most valuable, viz : on those 
parts which bring the highest prices on the butchers' stalls — the 
loins and quarters. Where wool is the sole object, weight and 
fineness of fleece alone need to be considered. Where wool and 
mutton are each equally sought for, the matter becomes compli- 
cated by many considerations, each of which should be studied 
with a view to give the preponderance to those which have the 
greatest special or local importance. 

In crossing breeds, we seek to Increase the size, unprove the 
shape, or hasten the maturity of the sheep; or improve the length, 
quality, or closeness of the fleece. But it will not do to select at 
random any ram which may happen to possess the qualities 
desired, without regard to some affinity of character with the 
ewes, lest lambs should be produced that are weak in constitution, 
or shapeless mongrels, through too wide a disparity between the 
parents. Experience has shown that the Leicester ram has made 
a greater improvement with long-wool sheep than with the short-/ 
wool breeds, and that the Southdown has made a mdfe^sijcc^sful 
first cross upon the latter. The^Cotswold has been very success- 
fully crossed upon the Merino, the Hampshire-down, the South- 
down, and other races, and as the parent of cross-bred races, this 
most valuable breed has gained the highest reputation. As a rul§,\ 
the first cross between a superior and high-bred race, and an infe-| 
rior one, produces the best sheep for breeding together ; further \ 



CHOICE OF A RAM. 85 

crosses often produce animals which, deteriorate in breeding, the 
progeny regaining more of the character of its inferior pr.rcatage, 
and losing that of the superior one. Judgment and caution are 
needed in selecting those results which have been successful, and in 
rejecting those which are unfavorable, also in continuing the inter- 
breeding for a sufficient length of time to eliminate all the defects 
which may reappear at times in the progeny. It is only after 
several generations that animals can be produced, which may be 
permitted safely to perpetuate their kind without further careful 
selection. During the intervening period, very close watchfulness 
is necessary ; the form of the animal, the preponderance of the 
desired points, as well as those that are not desirable, the charac- 
ter of the fleece, and the soundness of the animal's constitution, ' 
should all be patiently studied. Great contrasts between breeding 
animals should be avoided, as being dangerous to uniformity, and 
a gradual approach to a desired end by several steps will be found 
more certainly effective than to endeavor to attain it by one or 
two violent efforts. 

The selection of rams for breeding is a matter of the greatest 
importance. Not only the character of the flock, but the number 
of the lambs, to some extent, depend upon this. For general \ 
purposes, the ram should be chosen for his i)erfection of shape 
and fleece, rather than for his size or weight. For mutton sheep, 
whether long wool or medium wool, a round barrel, broad loin, 
fine bone, short legs, close wool, especially upon the back and 
loins, small head, full fore arms and thighs, and a mellowness of 
flesh within the fore legs upon the ribs, where a poor sheep 
never carries any fat, and in general an evenness of excellence, 
rather than any special single point of superiority, whether 
of size of body, or length, or weight of fleece, should be 
sought. A very heavy, large-bodied ram, will probably pro-'^ 
duce very irregular lambs, which will disappoint the breeder ; 
while a well knit, more even, smoother but smaller ram, will pro- 
duce lambs "of great uniformity and resemblance to himself, and 
very frequently, and especially so if out of well selected ewes, 
greatly surpassing him in size of carcass at maturity. In breeding 
from a large ram upon small bodied ewes, unless there is some 
special reason against it, a ram with a small head should be chosen, 
and the ewes selected should be wide across the loins, with a broad 
rump and wide pelvis. From a disregard of this it is sometimes 
the case that severe labor or death in parturition occurs amongst 
the ewes. In the first coupling of the young ewes, the greatest 
care should be exercised in selectinsc the ram, for its influence may 



8G THE SHEPHERD S MAKUAL. 

and sometimes will extend beyond his own immediate progeny, 
and modify that of future sires upon the same dams. While this 
influence of the first male is not so general as to aflford a basis for 
a rule, yet observation has shown it to be of sufiicient force to 
entitle it to the consideration of careful breeders. The influence 
of the ram upon the sex of the progeny, is something equally 
worth considering, although it is as yet somewhat undetermined. 
In theory it is supposed to be exerted through a natural provision) 
by which the fecundity of a race increases along with the better', 
opportunities it enjoys for its subsistence. Thus it is reasoned,' 
when animals are well fed and cared for, and are not allowed to' 
breed early, their produce will be in greater part females, permit-} 
ting a more rapid increase, in consistence with their more favor-^ 
able opportunities for development. On the contrary, when ani- 
mals are sparely fed or exhaustively used, and allowed to breed 
early, the tendency of nature is to restrict the production by the 
birth chiefly of males. This theory receives confirmation through ) 
the tendency of the early breeding and exhaustively producing 
Jersey cow to have male calves, and through some observed facts 
in sheep breeding. 

One of the facts directly pertinent to this matter is recorded in 
the Annales de V Agriculture Franraise, as follows. It was proposed 
at a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, to divide a 
flock of ewes into two parts, that an experiment might be made to 
test the question of breeding for sex. One flock of ewes was put 
into an abundant pasture, and was served by very young rams. 
The other flock was put into a poorer pasture, and was served by 
rams not less than four years old. The result is given in the tables 
which follow ; the flock from which the excess of female lambs 
was expected, being served by rams 15 months to 18 months old, 
produced three twin buths, and the flock expected to yield the 
most male lambs, and which was served by rams over 4 years old, 
produced not one double birth. 

Flock for female lambs served by rams under 18 months old . 

Sex of the Lambs. 

Age of Ewes. Males. Females. 

Two years old 14 26 

Three years old 1(5 29 

Four years old 5 21 

Total 35 76 

The excess of female lambs in this flock is very remarkable, as 
is also the excess of male lambs shown in the next table. 



ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS. 87 

Flock for male lambs served by rams over 4 years old : 

Sex of the Lambs. 

, » 

Age of Ewes. Males. Females. 

Two years old 7 3 

Three years old 15 14 

Four years old 32 14 

Total 55 31 

The result certainly justified the expectation, but it can scarcely 
be held to be anything more than suggestive for further research 
or experiment, rather than conclusive for the founding of a rule. 
The following well considered remarks made by the Hon. A. M. 
Garland, editor in charge of the sheep and wool department of the 
National Live- Stock Journal, at a meeting of the Madison Co., (111.) 
Farmers' Club, May 8th, 1875, are sufficiently valuable and perti- 
nent to be recorded here : " One essential to successful breeding is 
a persistent endeavor to attain the standard that has been fixed 
upon by the breeder as his idea of the perfect animal. While the 
sheep will be found to conform more readily than any other ani- 
mal, except perhaps tha dog, to certain well understood physio- 
logical laws, the attainment of all the desired characteristics, and 
their incorporation into the life and constitution so as to insure 
transmission with the desired force and certainty, is a labor involv- 
ing not alone judgment and taste, but patience as well. Mythology 
tells us of the goddess who leaped full-armed from the head of 
Jove ; but the attainment of perfect ends without the employment 
of patient and laborious means, is not among the blessings that 
surround the business man in this material age. He who expects 
to accomplish in a year what others have only completed in a life- 
time of labor, is pretty surely doomed to gather the bitter fruit of 
disappointment, and the chances arc largely in favor of pecuniary 
loss as well. It required over fifty years of labor, and care, and 
study, to bring the nine-pound fleece rams imported by Humphrey 
and others, up to the 25 and 30 pound shearers that head a number 
of the flocks of the present day. The highest types of the Cots- 
wold and Southdown are the result of an expenditure of time, and 
money, and study, equal to that bestowed upon the Merino in the 
United States in the last half a century. Such facts as these afford 
small encouragement for those young men who see visions, and 
those older ones who dream dreams, of a speedy fortune and an 
assured fame by the establishment of an intermediate breed of 
sheep — one that will combine in a single animal the good qualities 
of all the breeds and the weak points of none. Any of the estab- 



88 THE shepherd's manual. 

lished types will improve what is known as our common native 
sheep, sufficiently to justify the payment of a fair price for a choice 
ram. Grades from these flocks of common sheep, bred towards 
the long wools, the Downs or the Merinos, will be found profita- 
ble stock to the average farmer. Care should be had to breed all 
the time in the same direction — that is, always using the best rams 
of their kind within reach, having due regard to prudence in 
making the purchases. The first cross will usually show a greater 
change from the standard of the coarse-wooled mother than subse- 
quent ones, though an occasional cropping out of her less desira- 
ble characteristics may be expected, but should not discourage the 
efi'ort at improvement as persistent crossing by pure-bred rams 
will bring its reward in a sightly flock of grades, that can be de- 
pended upon to reproduce their characteristics with reasonable 
certainty." 

" In and in " breeding, or breeding between near relatives, is a 
subject which has given rise to much discussion, and to much 
diversity of opinion. The truth seems to be that close breeding 
up to a certain point is necessary to secure a fixed type, and when 
judiciously done, it may be the means of securing most valuable 
results. The English sheep breeders who have become most noted 
for their successes, have bred very closely, a most conspicuous 
example being Mr. Bakewell with his improved Leiceslers. Proba- 
bly no race of animals were so closely interbred as this. But it is 
questioned by some breeders if the limit of safety in this respect 
has not been overstepped, for no race so strongly exhibits in their 
defects the evil results which follow from too close breeding for 
any considerable length of time. The small light bone, the bald- 
head, the prominent glassy eyes, the thin, delicate skin, the ten- 
dency to tuberculous diseases, and other scrofulous affections, all of 
which are characteristic of some classes of the Leicesters, are the 
very evils which are known to follow from too close sexual affini- 
ties. Safety certainly lies in the avoidance of this sort of breeding 
to any great extent, and as a general rule for ordinary breeders, it 
may perhaps be laid down, that to breed a ram to his own lambs 
may be permitted, but to breed to the second generation of ofi"- 
spring should be avoided. To change the ram the second year 
would be to act on the side of safety, and except in rare instances, 
and for the attainment of clearly apprehended results, this should 
be the limit of close breeding. To breed a ram to his own ewe 
lambs is regarded as safer, and not so close breeding as breeding 
full brother and sister together, and yet to attain certain desired 
ends, this is and has been done, and will often be done by breeders. 



MAXIMS FOR BREEDERS. 89 

It may be questionable, however, if the results sought might not 
be as certainly and more securely gained by using less closely re- 
lated animals. Mr. Edwin Hammond, a noted breeder of Ameri- 
can Merinos, who has done much to develop this breed, seldom 
used rams with which to make his crosses that were not of his 
own flock. His famous ram Sweepstakes, came from a closely 
in-and-in bred family ; but because the most skillful breeders have 
succeeded in producing conspicuously favorable eficcts, it must 
not be concluded that other less capable breeders or farmers who 
know but little of the science of breeding, can hope to achieve any 
satisfactory measure of success. Besides, it should be considered 
that we only hear of the successes of these breeders. Theu* fail- 
ures are at once put out of the way, and no record is made of 
them ; in fact a portion of their skill, and not an inconsiderable 
portion either, consists in instantly recognizing their failures, and 
in summarily disposing of them. 

In summing up these few general remarks upon breeding, the 
following may be accepted as maxims for guidance to those as yet 
not familiar with the principles of the art. Breed for some well un- 
derstood object. Learn and know the character of every ewe and 
ram in the flock. Remember that the male gives his impress upon 
the progeny most strongly. Purity of blood in the male is an 
absolute necessity. It is cheaper to pay a fair price for good rams 
to a capable breeder, who makes the production of breeding ani- 
mals his business, than to attempt to raise one's own breeding 
stock. Animals that are not pure-bred, when coupled, tend toward 
reversion to the inferior stock rather than to progression towards 
the superior. Animals, as sheep, that are easily impressed favora- 
bly, as easily retrograde ; the rule works both ways. To feed well, is 
the co-efficient of, to breed well ; without good feeding good breed- 
ing is of no avail. Breeding lays the foundation, feeding builds on 
that. The first cross is the most effective, the next is but half as 
effective, and so on until, as in the increasing fraction Vq, ^/a, "'/s, 
Vic, ^V32, Vc4, etc., etc., unity is approached by diminishing 
quantities, and is thus never reached ; so the higher we breed the 
less advance is made in proportion. That a type so fixed that the 
breeders care in selection can ever be relaxed will never be reached. 

NATIVE BREEDS OF SHEEP. 

The Mexican Sheep. — Since the first discovery of America 
by Europeans, more than four centuries ago, there have been nu- 
merous importations of sheep into both South and North America. 
The first of these importations consisted doubtless of the common 



90 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

native sheep of Spain, designated by Dr. L. T. Fitzinger, the 
author of a paper upon the races of domestic sheep of Europe, 
(presented to the Imperial Academy of Science in Vienna, in 1860), 
as the landscJiaf^ or common rustic sheep, {Ovis aries). This sheep 
bore a very meager fleece of coarse wool. It is probable that all 
that part of the American continent which became subject to its 
Spanish discoverers, including the islands of the West Indies, was 
stocked with tbis common race. At that period the Spanish gov- 
ernment very jealously gCiarded the Merino sheep, and forbade 
their exportation, even -to their own American colonies. It is 
known, however, that a few Merinos were occasionally smuggled 
into Peru, and that to these was due the superior character of the 
wool of that country, which exists up to the present century. 
Elsewhere, however, the character of the dominant race of sheep 
was very inferior, and it now so remains ; the imports of wool 
from South America into the Uaited States being coarse in quality, 
and rating only as among the third class. Of a similar character 
to this is the race of sheep known in our western territories as 
" Mexican." Their origin is clearly the same as that of the native 
South American sheep, and their appearance is identical with that 
of the sheep represented in ancient Spanish paintings as the ordi- 
nary race of the country, the property of the peasantry. It may 
be concluded as most probable, if not certain, that this race, one 
of the ten primitive or distinct original races which inhabited Eu- 
rope, as determined by Dr. Fitzinger, (whose classification is con- 
firmed by other scientific men), unaltered by more than three 
centuries of acclimatization, is now represented by the bulk of the 
flocks which roam over Mexico, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, 
parts of California, and more recently Colorado. These sheep are 
hardy, wiry animals, weighing about 40 pounds, and yielding when 
unmixed with any Merino blood, a fleece of about two pounds of 
coarse wool. Of late this inferior race has been improved to 
some extent by crossing with pure Merinos from Vermont and 
other eastern states, and is found to make an excellent basis 
whereon to build up an improved and useful race. These sheep 
are of but little value, and in flocks are sold and bought at about 
$1.50 per head. The business of shipping rams westward to sup- 
ply this demand, from almost every state where Merinos are kept, 
has already reached respectable dimensions, and is rapidly increas- 
ing. The result cannot fail to build up, in course of time, a valua- 
ble class of native sheep well suited to these localities. These 
improved sheep produce a fleece weighing about 4 pounds of grade 
Merino wool, which will supply to a very great extent local manu- 



NATIVE BEEEDS. 91 

factories of such woolen goods as are in demand in the western 
country, and thus render the far western states independent, so 
far as regards their supply of woolen manufactures, of the eastern 
factories. 

The Virginia Sheep. — A native race of greater pretensions, 
and far greater value than the preceding, sprung from the first 
importation of English sheep in Jamestown, Ya., in 1609. The 
original settlers of this new Dominion w^ere in part men of wealth 
and position. The stock they imported would naturally he of the 
best that could be obtained, and the favorable climate of the 
country for sheep-raising, would tend to preserve the sheep from 
degradation. Repeated importations of excellent sheep were 
made during the succeeding two centuries, by prominent Virgin- 
ians, amongst whom were the Washingtons, and various members 
of the Custis family. Thus was founded a class of more than 
usually good, heavy bodied, long-wool sheep, which still exists and 
is famed for producing excellent early market lambs. Of late 
years considerable Leicester, Cotswold, and Southdown blood has 
been mingled with the old stock. Although the Virginia sheep 
can hardly claim to be considered as a distinct breed, yet they 
certainly furnish a very good basis upon which, by careful selec- 
tion and interbreeding, to found a breed thoroughly well adapted 
to the locality, as they are already acclimated and possess estab- 
lished qualities. 

The Improved Kentucky Sheep. — An account of the efforts 
which have been made to produce native varieties of sheep, would 
not be complete without the mention of what has been called the 
" Improved Kentucky Sheep." This breed or race originated with 
Mr. Robert Scott, of Frankfort, Kentucky, who crossed the com- 
mon native sheep of the locality, with Merino, Leicester, South- 
down, Cotswold, and Oxford-down rams. This was begun about 
40 years ago, by selecting 30 native ewes, which were bred 
to a selected Merino ram. The yearling ewes of this cross were 
bred to an imported Leicester ram. The ewes of this cross were 
served by an imported ram of the Southdown breed. The pro- 
duce of this cross were then bred to a ram of mixed blood, three- 
fourths Cotswold and one-fourth Southdown. The next two 
crosses were made by Cotswold rams, and the next by an Oxford- 
down ram. The produce of the last cross were bred to Cotswold 
rams again. This brought the flock up to 1855, when a mixed 
Cotswold, Oxford, Leicester, and Southdown ram was brought 
into service. After this the rams produced by this very mixed 



92 THE SHEPHEKD's MAKUALo 

breeding were used. In 1867 Mr. Scott furnished an account of 
his slieep for the annual report of the Department of Agriculture 
for 1866, in which he gave some very flattering testimonials which 
he had received from various parties, to whom he had sold his 
sheep, with pictures of rams and ewes of his flock. At that time 
his flock consisted of about 200 ewes and 50 yearling rams. Since 
then nothing further has been made public regarding this so-called 
improved sheep. Unfortunately the system of breeding followed 
by Mr. Scott could not have any definite or favorable result, as it 
is opposed to all the principles from which favorable results could 
have been anticipated. An animal thus produced could not be 
anything else than a mongrel, and although it might at first pre- 
sent a promising appearance, yet no certain characteristics could 
be expected to appear in its progeny. No such hasty process as 
this could be made permanent, for there had been no fixed type 
produced by any of the crosses upon which to build a further cross, 
to be in turn fixed permanently upon the race. No " breed " has 
ever been thus produced, nor can a " breed " by any possibility be 
established by this course of breeding while physiological laws re- 
main in force. This example is here cited as a warning and a 
caution, rather than as one to be followed by those persons who 
have an ambition to found a new or improved breed of sheep. 

The American Merino. — One of the most successful instances 
of the fortuitous results of sheep breeding, exists in the establish- 
ment of the American Merino. In a Treatise upon the Australian 
Merino, by J. R. Graham, superintendent of an extensive sheep 
station on the Murray River, (published in Melbourne, in 1870), 
the following testimony is given : " Of all imported sheep, those 
of our first cousins, the Americans, are the best. The best rams 
imported into Melbourne of late years were some American rams." 
This coming from so capable a judge, and in competition with the 
best selections of Merino sheep to be procured elsewhere in the 
world, may be taken without question as proof that the American 
Merino is the best sheep of its class in the world. It is therefore 
interesting to trace the course through which this breed has been 
brought to its present excellence, which enables it to stand alone 
on its own merits, beyond any capability of further improvement 
by any variety of Merino sheep now existing in any part of the 
world. 

The history of the American Merino commences with the 
present century, and with importations of choice sheep from 
Spain. The honor of the first importation seems to belong to Mr. 
William Foster, of Boston, who managed, *' with much difficulty 



THE AMERICAN MERII^O. 93 

and risk," to bring with him from Cadiz, two ewes and one ram. 
Unfortunately his enterprise came to naught, for presenting these 
valuable and costly sheep to a friend, this friend made them into 
mutton and ate them. This same friend afterwards paid $1,000 
for a Merino ram. One ram was imported in 1801, and was used 
on the farm of a French gentleman, Mr. Delessert, near Kingston, 
N. Y. This animal weighed 138 lbs., and his fleece, well washed 
in cold water, weighed 8 lbs. 8 ozs. He was a very fine ram, and 
finally founded a valuable flock on the farm of E. J. Dupont, near 
Wilmington, Del. Later in the same year, Mr. Seth Adams, of 
Zanesville, Ohio, imported a pair of Spanish Merinos, which re- 
ceived a premium at the fair of the Massachusetts Agricultural 
Society the next year. In 1802 Mr. Livingston, the American 
Minister to France, sent two pairs of French Merinos home to his 
farm on the Hudson River. In 1807, Mr. Livingston imported 
some choice Spanish ewes from France, and in 1808, his flock be- 
gan to acquire a wide reputation, his rams selling for $150 each, 
and half-blood ewes and rams for $12 each. In 1802, Colonel 
Humphreys, the American Minister to Spain, sent 25 rams and 75 
ewes, selected from the choicest flocks in Spain, to Derby, Con- 
necticut. From what particular family of Merinos these sheep were 
selected, does not appear, the evidence, however, seems to point to 
the fact that tliey were Infantados, or sheep from the flock of the 
Duke of Infantado, one of the chief grandees of Spain at that 
period. This flock was bred and improved by Col. Humphreys, 
with much success. At the death of this gentleman, in 1818, his 
flock was scattered, and only two or three then obscure farmers had 
the luck, or precaution, to preserve them pure and distinct. On 
the rise of the Merinos into their future high reputation, these for- 
tunate persons were brought into notice as the possessors of flocks 
of pure Merino sheep. But the most extensive and noteworthy 
importation, and that which gave form and character to the 
American Merinos, was that of the Hon. Wm. Jarvis, the Ameri- 
can Consul at Lisbon, in 1809 and 1810. This consisted of 3,850 
sheep of the flocks of Paulars, Negrettis, Aqueirres, and Montarcos 
of Spain. Tliese flocks, consisting of nearly 50,000 head, had 
been, for political reasons, confiscated and sold by the Spanish 
government, with other property of the four grandees who had 
owned them. 

Of the imported sheep, 1,500 came to New York, 1,000 to Bos- 
ton, and the remainder to Philadelphia, Baltimore, Alexandria, 
Norfolk, Richmond, Portland, Wiscasset, and Portsmouth. An- 
other shipment of 2,500 followed in 1810, and were distributed 



94 THE shepherd's manual. 

between New York and Boston. These sheep were of the prime 
flocks of Spam, and Spain's loss was our gain. Mr. Jarvis re- 
served 350 of the sheep for his own Use. A few other minor im- 
portations of Spanish sheep were made by other parties in 1810 and 
1811. The knowledge that we had thus obtained the verj best 
sheep in the world, started a speculative fever, which was increased 
by the war with England in 1812, when Merino wool sold for 
$2.50 a pound. Imported rams were eagerly purchased for $1,000 
to $1,500 each, and ewes sold for $1,000 a head. Many flocks of 
pure or grade sheep were started in all parts of the country, and 
much care was taken in the breeding of them. This lasted until 
the peace of 1815, when sheep that were valued at $1,000 a head, 
in 1809, sold for $1.00, and of course all interest in breeding then 
ceased. Afterwards, under the stimulus of various protective tar- 
ifls, the business revived, and fine wool-growing again attracted 
attention. 

In 1824, 77 Saxon Merino sheep were imported by G. & T. 
Searle, of Boston, and this was followed by several other importa- 
tions by the same parties. By bad management much loss resulted 
to the importer?, and in consequence of the poor quality of the 
sheep, the whole business was a failure for all concerned, includ- 
ing the purchasers. The iuferiority of the Saxon breed was mani- 
fest, and these sheep, which yielded a fleece of but 2^ to 3 lbs. per 
head, could not compete with the Spanish sheep, which produced 
4^ lbs. of well washed wool per head, of nearly equal value, al- 
though not quite so fine as the Saxon wool. The Saxon sheep 
have all disappeared since 1846. Then the American Merino came 
into general favor. This class of sheep, in 1840 to 1845, consisted 
of several families of distinctly marked varieties, due chiefly to the 
various courses of breeding followed by their several owners. The 
distinguishing peculiarities of these families consisted mainly in 
their size and bight of carcass, length and fineness of wool, the 
pendulous dewlaps and skinfolds of the rams, and the amount of 
yolk in the fleece, and its consequent greater weight and darker 
color. Up to the period in question, the choicest flocks were to 
be found in New England, on account of the greater care there 
taken in breeding. Some of the Connecticut and Vermont breed- 
ers had taken great pains to improve their flocks, and much emu- 
lation existed amongst them in this respect. Gradually, diflfer- 
ences became merged and blended by the continued purchase of 
rams by the owners of defective flocks, from the more careful 
breeders, and finally only the two families, the Paulars and the 
Infantados continued to be bred as distinct in all parts of the 



INCREASE OF SIZE AND FLEECE. 



95 



country. Since then these separate families, their crosses, and those 
between them and other pure flocks, have been greatly improved. 
The carcass has become larger and heavier, and the fleece has 
been increased in weight. This is shown by the following table, 
taken from a more extensive one published about 70 years ago by 
Petri, who visited Spain for the express purpose of examining the 
Spanish sheep, and from some measurements made by the Hon. 
H. S. Randall, of Cortland, N. Y. , and published in his valuable 
work on " Fine Wool Sheep Husbandry," as well as from number- 
less well authenticated weights of fleeces. The table is as follows : 



NAMES OP FLOCKS. 



Negretti Ram , 

'' Ewe 

lufantado Ram 

" Ewe 

Guadeloupe Ram , 

" Ewe 

Estantes of Sierra de Some Ram . . . 
'■ " " " Ewe.., 

Small Estantes Ram 

" " Ewe 

American Merino Ram 

Ewe 

" " Ewe 

" " Ewe 



lbs. 
97 
67 

mx 

70 

97 V 
69 " 

mx 

Q2X 

42 

30 
122 
114 
122 
100 






zn. 

S^ 
10 
9 
9 
9 

9 

7 

9 

QM 

9 

9 



is 



in. 
19 

17 
18 

nx 

18 
14 
18 
14 
15 
13 
10 
10 
10 
11 



^, 



zn. 
26 
25 
27 
25 
26 
25 
24 
25 
21 
18 
28 
28 
29 
27 



zn. 

54X 
50X 
55 

51>^ 

53 

47 

511/2 

48 

43>^ 

38 

47 

47>^ 

48 

47 



"k. 



s 



zn. 
4914 
49>^ 
50 
47 
53X 
45 
50^ 
46 
38 
34 
523^ 
49>^ 
51 
48»i 



tn. 
15 
13 
12 
12 
12 

ioy, 

12 
11 
10 

8 
11 
11 

9 

8X 



'^ 



zn. 
10 

9 



614 

8 

7 

61/2 

6 

9 

9 

9 



e5 



zn. 

6 

43^ 

6 

5>^ 

6 

4 

G 

5 

3 

3 

9 

8 



These difierences, it will be observed, occur in those respects 
which add greatly to the value of the animal, the heavier weights 
of carcass, the shorter neck, the shorter legs, and the very greatly 
increased width of loin. All these points of improvement tend to 
show an animal of excellent physical vigor and constitution. 

As to the fleece : in 1800 to 1813, the imported Merinos yielded 
3^ to 4 lbs. of brook-washed wool, in the ewe, and 6 to 7 lbs. in the 
ram. The heaviest fleeced ram imported, that of Mr. Dupont, 
produced 81 lbs. of brook-washed wool. In 1845 the product had 
increased to 5 lbs. for some small flocks, and 9 lbs. for rams. Mr. 
Stephen Atwood, of Vermont, reported in this year that his heavi- 
est ewe's fleece was 6 lbs. 6 oz., and his heaviest ram's fleece, 12 
lbs. 4 oz. In 1849, a ram, belonging to Mr. Randall, produced 13 
lbs. 8 oz. of well washed wool. Up to this period the Merinos 
had been under a heavy cloud, and improvement had not occurred 
so rapidly as it has done since then. The weights of the fleeces of 



9(5 • THE shepherd's manual. 

those early days of the American Merinos are far surpassed now, 
and the average of some small flocks reaches over 10 pounds of 
washed wool. Many remarkable reports of recent shearings might 
be selected from various agricultural journals, which go to show 
a greatly increased production of wool per head, and the reports 
may doubtless be accepted as in the main correct. In the Ohio 
Farmer of June 19th, 1875, are reported weights of some fleeces of 
pure-bred American Merinos, viz : of a flock of 44, an aged ram's 
fleece weighed 30 pounds ; 34 yearling ewes' fleeces w^eighed 410 
lbs. 3 oz., an average of over 12 pounds, and 9 aged ewes' fleeces, 
108 lbs. 7 oz., an average of 12 pounds. The wool was 3 inches 
long, of a clear white color, and therefore free from excessive 
yolk. Also of a flock of 80 ; 19 ram lambs, average age 13^ 
months, sheared 325 J lbs., average 17 lbs, 2 oz. per fleece; 13 
rams, 3 to 6 years old, sheared 325^, or 17 lbs. 5 oz. per fleece ; 48 
ewes produced 668 lbs. 6 oz., or 14 lbs. nearly per fleece. The 
extreme weights of the ram lambs' fleeces were from 14 lbs. to 30 
lbs. ; of the rams, 14 lbs. to 34 lbs. 4 oz. , and of the ewes, 13 lbs. 
to 18 lbs. These fleeces, being doubtless unwashed, would shrink 
one-third in washing. In the Michigan Farmer of July, — , 1875, 
the weight of 16 fleeces is reported at 168^ lbs. of washed wool, 
an average of 10^ lbs. each ; 10 ewes yielded 91 lbs. ; 3 yearling 
rams produced 454- lbs., and three yearling ewes 33 lbs. The 
Detroit Tribune^ about the same time, reports a flock of 43 
ewes and wethers which produced 399 lbs., an average of 
about 9J lbs. of washed wool. Seven yearling rams sheared 
100| lbs., being 13 months' growth of wool; one of these fleeces 
weighed 15 lbs., and the sheep after shearing weighed 49 lbs. One 
6-year ram sheared 19 lbs. unwashed wool. Another flock of 33 
ewes produced 318 lbs. of wool, washed on the slieeps' backs 9 
days previously. These reports are selected at haphazard, upon 
casually glancing over a few of the papers which are in the habit 
of jDublishing news of this character, sent by know^n correspond- 
ents. In all these cases the names and addresses are given with 
the reports, but are withheld here, as they are in no way excep- 
tional, or surpass the reports of the flocks of numberless other 
farmers or breeders. Indeed, many thoroughly trustworthy re- 
ports are constantly being given of greater weights of fleece than 
any of these. The following reports of the weights of the premi- 
um fleeces sheared at the annual meeting of the American Wool- 
Growers' Association of 1875, may be given as finally conclusive 
of the fact under consideration, viz : the gradual improvement and 
present high value of the American Merino in the hands of Ameri- 



DESCEIPTIOK OF THE AMERICA]Sr MERIN'O. 97 

can breeders, until it has now no superior in the world as a wool 
bearer, or as an improver of inferior races of sheep. 

Weight of Sheep. Weight of Fleece. Age of Fleece. 

1st Premium Ram 180 V2 lbs. 29 Ibg. 11 mo. 21 days. 

2iul '• " 148 11)s. 23 lbs. 13 oz. 1 yr. 4 " 

1st " Ewe. 108 lbs. 17 lbs, 3 oz. 11 mo. 22 " 

2-yr. old Ewe not entered for pr. 22 lbs. 8 oz. 1 yv. 5 " 

It is impossible, in the limited space that can be here devoted to 
this breed, to rehearse the means by which these sheep have been 
gradually brought to this excellence. For these details the reader 
who would study the subject of fine-wool sheep breeding, is referred 
to the excellent work of Mr. Randall before referred to, in which 
it is treated of at length. The portrait on the next page gives 
a remarkably accurate general view of a first class American 
Merino ram. It represents the ram " Golden Fleece," bred and 
owned by E. S. Stowell, Cornwall, Vermont 

The description of a high bred American Mermo, of such excel- 
lence as may be readily found in numerous flocks at the present 
time, may be summed up as follows, giving prommence to the 
several most important characteristics, viz : 

I The Carcass should be plump, medium size, round, deep, not 
long in proportion to roundness, the head and neck short and 
thick ; the back should be straight and broad, the breast and but- 
tock full ; the legs short, well apart, and strong, with heavy fore- 
arm and full twist. This compact figure indicates a hardy con- 
stitution, ease of keeping, and good feeding properties. 

Skin. — The skin should be of a deep rich rose-color, thin, mel- 
low, loose, and elastic on the body. This indicates a healthy, well 
conditioned animal. A pale or tawny skin indicates impurity of 
blood, or at least weakness of constitution, and is therefore ob- 
jectionable. 

Folds and Wrinkles. — These arc permissibl? to a certain extent. 
The fashion in this regard has doubtless passed beyond the bounds 
of wisdom, and excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is un- 
sightly and useless, if not worse. In shearing, it causes a waste of 
time, and gives no adequate return in wool. A deep, soft, plaited 
dewlap on both ewes and rams, and some slight wrinkles on the 
neck of the ram, satisfied the early breeders in this respect. While 
heavy neck-folds on the ram, and short ones back of the elbow 
and on the rump, are tolerated by breeders at the present time, yet 
it is simply fashion, and adds nothing to the value of the animal, 
but on the contrary is dearly paid for in the increased cost of 
shearing. An exception to this may be taken in respect of rams 
5 



98 



THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 




THE FLEECE. 99 

to be used in improving the poor, smooth-skinned native race 
common on the western plains, in which case a heavy yolked and 
much wrinkled ram may be found desirable. 

The Fleece. — A sheep bred exclusively, or chiefly, for wool, must 
necessarily be valued in proportion to the value of the fleece. The 
wool of a pure-bred Merino of any value, should stand at right 
angles to the skin, presenting a dense, smooth, even surface on the 
exterior, openmg nowhere but in those natural cracks or divisions 
which separate the fleece into masses. These masses should not 
be small in size, or they indicate excessive fineness of fleece ; a 
quarter of an inch is the limit in this respect ; nor too large, lest 
the wool be coarse and harsh. The length should be such as, com- 
bined with thickness of staple, will give the greatest weight of 
fleece. Medium wool is generally in greater demand than fine 
wool, and it is more profitably produced. Two to three inches is 
probably the most desirable length of fleece for pi'ofit. A change, 
however, is taking place in this respect, since the practice of 
combing Merino wool has become general, and three inches 
and over is a frequently desired length of fiber. It is not 
desirable to have the face covered with wool long enough to fold 
up in the fleece. If the eyes are covered with such wool, the sheep 
is either blinded, or the wool must be kept clipped close. The 
ears should be small, with a coat of soft mossy hair about half 
way to the roots, and for the remainder, covered with wool. A 
naked ear is very objectionable. Evenness in quality in every 
part of the sheep is very desirable, ifair growing up through the 
wool on the thighs, the neck-folds, or scattered through the fleece 
here and there, is not to be allowed. The wool should be sound, 
that is, of even strength from end to end of the fiber. It should 
be highly elastic and wrinkled, curved or wavy. The number of 
these curls, or waves, to the inch, is not so much a test of excel- 
lence as their regularity and beauty of curvature. A folding back 
of the fiber upon itself is not so desirable as a gentler curve. (See 
Chapter on Wool). 

Pliancy and Softness to the feeling in handling, is an excellent 
test of quality, so much prized by manufacturers, that practiced 
buyers will sometimes form an accurate judgment of a fleece by 
handling it in the dark w.ith gloved hands. 

Yolk. — To what extent the yolk should exist in the wool of the 
Merino, is a matter of dispute, and in some degree a matter of 
taste. A certain portion of yolk is absolutely necessary to the 
existence of a good fleece, and beyond this it is questionable if any 



100 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

excess of yolk answers any good purpose. This is considered at 
some length in the Chapter on Wool, where it naturally belongs. 
When it is in such excessive quantity as in a fleece which weighed 
19ilbs. before washing, and only 4 lbs. afterwards, it is decidedly 
objectionable, except in the case of a ram chosen to impart greater 
yolkiness to a flock which is deficient in this respect. In general, 
as wool is the object sought, no more yolk is necessary than the 
quantity required to promote the growth of the fleece and to keep 
it in good condition, soft, pliant, and thoroughly well lubricated. 

FOREIGN BREEDS.— LONG- WOOL SHEEP. 

Long-wool sheep are properly natives of the rich low-lands of 
England, which are productive of abundant, succulent, nutritious 
pasture. But there have been great improvements in agriculture 
during the past century, which have enabled farmers' to produce 
enormous crops of clover, artificial grasses, and roots, and to pur- 
chase large supplies of rich concentrated foods, such as the various 
oil-cakes. As one result of this improved agriculture, the long- 
wool sheep have been taken from the alluvial lands where they 
originated, to the uplands, where they have greatly increased in 
number, and also improved in character. The fact that these large 
bodied, heavy fleeced sheep have been found far more profitable 
than the lighter short-wool sheep, has been the all-sufiicient cause 
of this adaptation of the race to new conditions, for profit is the 
moving power in every industry, and what is, is simply because it 
is profitable, and for no other reason in this day of eager search 
for increased comfort and wealth. The profit of long-wool sheep 
consists not only in their weight of meat and fleece, but in then* 
rapid growth and early maturity. In the change of locality allud- 
ed to, and from circumstances of feed and management, some of 
the ancient breeds have disappeared altogether, and other breeds 
have been much changed by extensive crossing with the most popu- 
lar and higbly bred of them. The long-wool sheep of the present 
time may be divided into two classes ; one of wdiicli still remains 
localized in low rich alluvial soils, and drained marshes of certain 
parts of England ; this, includes the Lincoln and the Romney 
Marsh breeds. Tlie other class belongs to dry arable plains, or 
farms devoted to grain, grass, and root crops, and other specialties 
of mixed farming. This class includes the Leicester, Cotswold, 
and Oxford-down breeds. 

The Lincoln is the heaviest bodied sheep in existence. In 
1826 a three-shear sheep of this breed, (40 months old, or about 



THE LliifCOLN SHEEP. 



.101 




103 THE SIIErnEllD's MANUAL. 

that age), was sliiughtered in Eugland, which dressed 9Gi lbs. the 
quarter ; a two-shear sheep dressed 91 lbs. per quarter, and a 
yearling dressed 71 lbs. per quarter. In a report on Lincoln sheep, 
it is stated that thirty 14-months-old wether lambs, slaughtered at 
Lincoln Fair, averaged 140 lbs. each, dressed weight, and 100 to- 
gether of the lambs clipped 11 lbs. of washed wool apiece. The 
usual practice of the Lincolnshire breeders is to feed the sheep 
until about two years old, when they will have yielded a second 
fleece weighing 10 to 14 pounds, and will dress 130 to IGO lbs. 
dead weight j'or the butcher. The wool of this breed is very long 
and lustrous, measuring nine inches and over. The origin of the 
present highly improved breed, was a race of heavy-bodied sheep 
which in its pure state is now practically extinct. It inhabited the 
low alluvial tlats of Lincolnshire, and the adjoining localities, on 
the eastern coasts of England. These sheep were large and coarse, 
with a long, ragged, oily tlcece, which nearly swept the ground. 
They fed slowly, but nuide much inward fat, and their meat was 
well flavored, fine grained, juicy, and not too much overlaid with 
fat on the outside. A century ago tliis was the established char- 
acter of these sheep. When the improved Leicesters of Mr. Bake- 
well came into notoriety, the intelligent Lincolnshire breeders ob- 
tained some of his rams, and by admixture of their blood, in time 
established a distinctl}^ new breed. In connection with a system 
of farming, in which heavy crops of roots and green fodder were 
the chief productions, this improved breed became fixed in its 
character as the heaviest producers of mutton and wool in the 
world. In one instance 26i lbs. of wool was taken from a 14- 
months old lamb. From 1862 to 1870, the majority of prizes for 
long-wool sheep at English fairs, were taken by the Lincolns, but 
it was not until the former date, that the breed was given a dis- 
tinct place as a separate class at these shows. Since then it has 
achieved great prominence, and become very popular for crossing 
upon other breeds, for the production of feeding sheep, and for its 
yield of long, lustrous, and worsted wools. The Lincoln requires 
the best and richest soils, and succulent herbage, and can only 
thrive under the best management and very high farming. At 
present it is questionable if we in this country have any place in 
our agriculture which this sheep can profitably fill, unless it be in 
a very few instances, where the highest skill of the breeder is ex- 
ercised under peculiarly favorable conditions of soil and climate. 
A fine flock of these sheep was imported by Mr. Richard Gibson, 
of London, Canada, and has been carefully and successfully culti- 
vated by him. A portion of Mr. Gibson's flock has been recently 



THE KOMKEY ilARSH SHEEP. 



103 




104 THE SHEPHEKD's MANUAL. 

purchased by Mr. William A. King, of Minneapolis, Minn. Mr. 
George Grant, of Kansas, also has a flock. Their adaptability to 
our climate is therefore in a fair way of being thoroughly tested. 

The Romney Marsh Sheep.— This breed is also an inhabitant 
of low, alluvial lands. Its home is in south-eastern England, in 
the extensive marshes of the county of Kent, which are ditched 
and diked in the same manner as those of Holland. It has ex- 
isted there from time immemorial, and has fed on the rich clay 
lands which are so productive of herbage as to be capable of carry- 
ing 14 sheep to the acre. This breed has also been much improved 
by crossing with Leicester rams. It is hardier than the Lincoln, 
and survives much neglect. It is rarely sheltered, even in severe 
weather, and the lambs are generally pastured during the winter 
in the stubbles upon the adjoining uplands, where they undergo 
many privations. It is not improbable that this hitherto neglected, 
but valuable and hardy sheep, could find suitable homes upon our 
eastern coasts, and rich river flats, where it would serve a better 
purpose than the more highly bred and delicate Leicester, in im- 
proving, or displacing, our less valuable native sheep. The charac- 
teristics of the Romney Marsh sheep are : a thick, broad head and 
neck, long carcass, flat sides, broad loin, full and broad thigh, 
neither heavy nor full fore-quarter, thick, strong legs and broad 
feet; wool long, somewhat coarse, and coarsest on the thighs; 
much inside fat, and a favorite animal with the butcher. There is 
a tuft of wool on the forehead. The fleece weighs from 7 to 10 
pounds, is of long staple, sound quality, and bright and glossy ; 
it is in demand by French and Dutch manufacturers for a sort of 
mohair fabric known as *' cloth of gold," {Drap cCor). At three 
years old the wethers dress from 100 to 130 lbs., and the ewes 
from 70 to 90 lbs. After a moderate amount of crossing with the 
Leicester, it was found that to persevere further in this direction 
tended to make these sheep less hardy, and the cross was at once 
abandoned. Inter-breeding amongst the cross-bred sheep main- 
tained the improvement without sucrificing the hardiness and 
vigor of constitution, which renders this breed so well adapted to 
its bleak and wind-swept pastures. 

The Leicester.— It was more than a hundred 3^ears ago that 
the old Leicester sheep fell into the hands of Mr. Robert Bakewell. 
They were then large, heavy, coarse animals, having meat of a 
poor flavor, a long and thin carcass with flat sides, large bones, and 
thick, rough legs. They were poor feeders, and at two or three 
years old made 100 to 130 lbs. of mutton. The wool was long and 



THE LEICESTER SHEEP. 



105 



i||iiii||ll|MNiii;[iiiiiiiiiiiiiMi<i'iiiiiiKiin!'WN/in[iiiiiit/i/iiiviiiiMiiiiiiiiimi;iiiiiifii'iiiiiiii''ini^ 




106 THE shepherd's MA2^UAL. 

coarse, and of only moderate value. By a course of breeding, 
about wbich lie was very reticent even to Ms friends, and which 
he kept secret from other breeders, Mr. Bake well totally changed 
the character of these sheep, and built up for himself a reputation 
as a successful breeder, which is second to that of no other in the 
world. Of his system of breeding, the most that is known is, that 
he commenced with the inferior, old Leicesters, selecting the best 
of them he could find. He apparently used any animal whatever, 
without reference to breed or color, nor did he regard relationship, 
if he considered those coupled together would be most likely to 
produce the results that he wished to attain in the ofispring. 
His object was to produce an animal that would yield in the 
shortest time, and with the least consumption of feed, the largest 
amount of flesh and fat, meanwhile not neglecting the fleece. His 
ideal sheep was to him precisely what the desired Short-horn was 
to the Culley Brotliers, Mr. Bates, or Mr. Booth ; and all these 
breeders gave their whole soul to the attainment of their one 
single object. The Culley Brothers were pupils of Mr. Bakewell, 
and it is but just to give him some share of the honor attained by 
these originators of the Short-horn. Each of these breeders bred 
in-and-in, both frequently and closely, and each of them went out- 
side of the breed he was building up and improving for foreign 
blood, when anything was to be gained by it. It is stated of Mr. 
Bakewell that he used sheep of six or seven different breeds, and 
one visitor to his establishment, reported that, in going about the 
stables alone, early one morning, before IVIr. Bakewell had risen, 
he saw a black ram, but a very magnificent animal, hidden away 
in a pen. In course of time his success was recognized by the best 
test — that of the market value of his sheep. He began in 1755 ; in 
1760 his rams were let for an annual sum of about $4 each. In 
1780 he received $50 for the season's use of a ram. In 1784 the 
price was raised to $525. In 1786 one ram was let for $1,575. In 
1789 he received $6,300 for the use of three rams, all born at one 
birth ; $10,500 for seven others ; and $15,750 for the use of the 
remainder of his flock. Twenty-two hundred dollars was paid by 
each of two breeders for the use of one ram for their flocks alone, 
he reserving one-third of his use for himself, making the yearly 
value of this one ram equal to $6,600. After his death, Bake well's 
system of close breeding was followed by his successors, but with 
the effect of reducing the value of the breed to the farmer. The 
sheep became delicate, and weakened in constitution, reduced in 
size, less prolific, and less careful of their lambs. New blood, 
chiefly of the hardier Cotswold, has been of late years introduced 



THE COTSWOLD SHEEP. 107 

with the effect of restoring their lost qualities. The modern im- 
proved Leicester is without horns ; with white face and legs, a 
small, fine head, bare on the poll; a large, bright, and very promi- 
nent eye ; square and deep neck and shoulders ; straight, flat, broad 
back ; deep body ; hind quarters tapering somewhat to the tail, and 
not so square as in the Cotswold ; clean legs, and fine bone. The 
flesh is good, but overloaded with outside fat. The fleece is fine, 
glossy, silky, white, and of but moderate length, averaging 7 to 8 
pounds in weight. The skin is thin, soft, and elastic, and of a 
very delicate pinkish tinge, when the animal is in full health. The 
Leicester cannot by any means be called a hardy sheep, as it requires 
good keep, careful shelter, and skillful treatment to maintain it in 
thriving condition. When ailing it gives way at once, and de- 
clines rapidly. It matures rapidly and early, and at twelve months 
old wlien well fed, will dress 100 pounds, and at two years reaches 
a weight of 150 pounds. A four-year-old ram in prime condition 
has weighed 380 pounds live weight. For use in this country, the 
Leicester cannot compete with the Cotswold, nor is it fitted in any 
way to become the farmer's sheep, excepting in very rare cases, 
when its services might be desired to refine a Cotswold cross in the 
hands of a breeder who thoroughly understands his business. 

The Cotswold. — This breed has become so common in Ameri- 
ca, and has been bred so extensively without fresh importations of 
new blood, that it may well be adopted as a native sheep. Many 
excellent flocks are now self-sustaining, and under their American 
nativity, lose nothing of their original excellence. The Maple 
Shade flock, originally the property of Mr. John D. Wing, of 
Dutchess County, N. Y., but some years ago divided, and now 
owned by other parties, is one of many instances of the successful 
acclimatization of this most valuable sheep. The Cotswold has 
an ancient history. It is said to have been introduced into Eng- 
land from Spain, by Eleanora, Qaeen of Henry II, of England, in 
the twelfth century. Although there is nothing more than tradi- 
tion to support this, yet there is some corroboration of it in the 
fact that in Spain there has long existed, and is now, a breed of 
coarse, long wool sheep not unlike the original Cotswold in some 
respects. It is known, however, that in fifty years after this early 
date, the wool of the Cotswold sheep was a source of material 
wealth, and was jealously guarded by law. Three centuries after 
this, (in 1467), permission was granted by the English king, Ed- 
ward lY, as a royal favor, to export some of these sheep to Spain. 
They were originally very coarse animals, with thick, heavy 
fleece, well adapted to their home upon the bleak exposed Cots- 



108 



THE shepherd's MA:bfUAL. 




DESCRIPTION OF THE COTSWOLD. 109 

wold liills. So valuable and staple a breed could not long remain 
witbout improvement. Naturally, the sweet nutritious herbage 
of the limestone soil covering these hills, favored this improve- 
ment, and as the pastures became enclosed, and agriculture im- 
proved in character, the flocks improved with it. When the Lei- 
cester became the most popular sheep of England, it was made to 
assist in this course of improvement of the Cotswolds. It gave to 
the breed a better quality, a smoothness and refinement, and a 
greater aptitude to fatten, while it did not lessen its ancient hardi- 
ness of constitution. The modern Cotswold is still capable of en- 
during hardship and exposure, and is at home on all sorts of soils. 
It produces a large carcass of excellent mutton, and a heavy fleece 
of valuable combing wool, adapted by its peculiar character for a 
class of goods of wide consumption, it being in demand for vari- 
ous manufactures from the small matters, such as worsted dress 
braids, up to various kinds of cloths for men's and women's 
garments. Moreover the breed matures at an early age. It is 
not unusual to find sheep of 120 lbs. and over, at a year old. A 
full-grown sheep, exhibited at a Christmas cattle market in Eng- 
land, dressed 344 pounds, or 86 lbs. per quarter. The weight of 
the fleece should average 8 lbs. for a flock of all kinds, and some 
of our naturalized flocks surpass this weight of fleece. Many 
ewes have shorn 11 lbs. each. The fleece of " Champion of Eng- 
land," whose portrait is given on the opposite page, weighed 18 
lbs., and the fleeces of the ewes of the same flock, weighed from 
11 to 16 lbs. The description of a well bred Cotswold is as fol- 
lows : The face and legs are white, but sometimes dashes of 
brown or gray derived from the original stock, may be found on 
both face and forelegs. The head is strong and massive, with 
sometimes a Roman nose, without horns, and having a thick fore- 
lock of wool upon the forehead. The neck and forequarters are 
not so square and heavy, nor the brisket so prominent, as in the 
best Leicesters, but the hind quarters are square, full, and broad, 
and the thigh solid and heavy. The back is straight and broad, 
and the ribs well sprung, giving a round body ; the flanks are 
deep; the legs are clean, of moderate length, but the bone is not 
so fine as in the Leicester. The general style and appearance is 
good and attractive, and indicative of a vigorous, active, and hardy 
animal, and a prime mutton sheep. They are active and well 
fitted for gathering a living upon a pasture in which a Leicester 
would hardly thrive. The lambs are active and hardy, and the 
ewes are good mothers. The fleece is closer upon the back than 
that of the Leicester, and only in aged rams exposes the skin along 



110 THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 

the middle. The wool sometimes reaches a length of 9 inches, and 
although coarse, is soft and mellow. lu some of these sheep, the 
fleece is beautifully waved. No breed is more valuable for cross- 
ing than this. It has helped to establish several permanent cross 
breeds ; the Oxford-downs and the Shropshires in England ; a 
Cotswold-Merino in Germany, and another of this cross, which is 
well under way in this country, and last, but not least, a very 
promising cross breed, originated on the Beacon Farm, Long 
Island, by Mr. William Crozier, and called the Beacon-downs. It 
has, moreover, been used to produce many cross-bred market 
sheep in various parts of England, and is extensively used by our 
sheep-raisers in the production of market lambs. Being capable 
of adaptation to almost any locality, and producing a wool which, 
both in its pure state and in its grades, is of wide availability in 
the woolen manufacture, it may justly claim to be the most valua- 
ble sheep we have acquired, and to promise a more extended use- 
fulness than any other we at this time possess, or can probably 
procure. 

The Oxfokd-downs.— This is one of the newly established 
cross-breeds, which has made a favorable reputation, and promises 
to become permanent. It has already been introduced here, and 
has made its appearance on several farms, the owners of which 
possess more than usual enterprise. It is classed among the long- 
wool sheep, but it is only since 1862 that it has gained the honor, 
or has been awarded the justice of a separate class at the English 
fairs. It has rapidly extended its domain in England, and as a 
wool and mutton producer, firmly holds all it gains. It originated 
in a cross of a Cotswold ram upon a Hampshire-down ewe, made in 
or about the year 1830, by Mr. Twynham and several other farmers, 
of Hampshire, England. The produce was a sheep heavier than the 
dam, and resembling the Cotswold in size and fleece. The wool, 
however, was finer and firmer than that of the Cotswold, and 
from five to seven inches in length. The first cross rams and 
ewes were bred together, no further cross being made. By con- 
tinued care the best points have been preserved, and the constitu- 
tion and character of the first cross have been maintained. The 
result is, a sheep that is found profitable to feed on a mixed farm ; 
hardy, producing at 14 months old a carcass of 80 to 88 lbs. , and a 
fleece of 8 or 9 lbs. of wool, which is in great demand in the 
worsted manufacture. By good feeding these weights are much 
increased. At the Smithfield, (London), fat cattle show of 1873, 
a pen of three 22-months-old shearlings weighed alive 895 lbs., or 
an avera2:e of 298 lbs. each. Rams have been known to shear 20 



THE OXFORD-DOW]^ SHEEP. 



Ill 




11:3 THE shepherd's MAis"UAL. 

lbs. of wool for their first fleece. The Oxford-down has a head 
much like a Cotswold, with a tuft on the forehead, but with dark 
face and legs, which are derived from its other parent, the Hamp- 
shire-down ; a thick set somewhat curl}-- fleece, a round barrel on 
short legs, and yields, when less than two years old, a mutton con- 
sidered by its friends as superior to the Southdown of the same 
age, but inferior to it when older tlian two years. Its native 
locality is a district at the foot of the Cotswold hills, an area of 
mixed soils, abounding in springs, and requiring much draining. 
At particular seasons in the winter, neither the Cotswold nor the 
Southdown could be made to thrive upon these wet soils, but the 
cross-bred sheep have successfully withstood the inconvenience 
without being aifccted with the usual disease of the district, such 
as giddiness, or water on the brain. They have been found very 
profitable feeders, requiring but little purchased food, and stand- 
ing the exposure incident to folding upon green crops in the winter, 
without difliculty. Good rams of this breed bring about $60 per 
head at the ram sales. 

MEDIUM AND SHORT-WOOL SHEEP. 

The Shropsihre Sheep. — The Shropshire is one of the cross- 
bred sheep that owes its origin in part to the Cotswold, the other 
parent being an original breed of sheeii common to the district, 
and known as the " Morfe Common " sheep. This word *' com- 
mon " does not express quality, but is used here as referring to an 
unenclosed tract of land known as "common land," or public 
property ; such tracts formerly existed in many localities in Eng- 
land, and to a considerable extent in the early settlements in New 
England. These sheep of Morfe Common, (which was a tract of 
600,000 acres of land), were the original stock upon which crosses 
of Cotswold, and afterwards of Leicester and Southdown, were 
made at various periods. This course of improvement appears to 
have been begun about 1793. From the unequal admixture of 
blood, the Shropshires vary somewhat in character, sometimes 
possessing the character of a short-wool, and sometimes that of a 
medium-wool sheep. The original sheep was horned, black or 
brown faced, hardy, and free from disease, producing 44 to 56 lbs. 
of mutton to the carcass, and a fleece of 3 lbs. of moderately fine 
wool, which was used in the cloth manufacture. After three- 
quarters of a century of cultivation, they are now without horns, 
with faces and legs of a dark or spotted gray color ; thick, meaty 
neck- well shaped, rather small and fine head ; neat ears well set 



THE SHllOPSniliE bHEEP. 



113 




ll-i THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

on the head ; broad, deep breast ; straight back ; a good, round bar- 
rel ; and clean legs with strong bone. They are very hardy, thrive 
well on moderate keep, are quickly fattened, and produce at two 
years old, 80 to 100 lbs., or even 120 lbs. of excellent meat, which 
brings the highest price from the butcher. The ewes are prolific 
and good mothers. The fleece is heavier than that of the South- 
down, being longer and more glossy, and w^eighs on the average 
about 7 lbs. of marketable wool. The portraits on the preceding 
page are of some members of a flock imported from England 
in 1874, by Mr. J. T. Hoyt, of Suisun City, California. This 
sheep possesses many valuable qualities for our uses, and promises 
to make a satisfactory farmer's sheep in localities where medium 
wool and choice mutton are profitable, and where the flocks have 
to depend upon pasture for the greater part of their support. Its 
close, well set fleece, and hardy constitution, will also help to carry 
it through considerable exposure and variable weather, without 
injury. Prize rams have sold in England for $500 each, but at the 
annual ram sales, the prices run from $50 to $150. There are sev- 
eral flocks of this breed kept in difi"erent parts of the United 
States and Canada, which promise to become sources of supply. 

The Southdown. — The modern improved Southdown de- 
scended from an old established breed of sheep, which have inhab- 
ited the hilly portions of England from the most ancient periods 
of known history of that countr}'-. In the southern part of the 
country, and in the counties of Sussex, Kent, Hampshire, and 
Dorsetshire, there is a range of low hills, underlaid with chalk, 
which descend gradually on the south to the sea coast, and on the 
north mero^e into rich cultivated lands. These low hills or 
" Downs," have a dry soil, and are covered with a rich, sweet, 
short, dense herbage. Upon this favorable soil the ancient breed 
throve without special care, and w^hen skillful breeders, emulating 
the success of Mr. Bakewell with the Leicesters, commenced to 
improve it, they speedily raised its character. At first the Sussex 
or Southdown sheep were small, and with few good points ; long 
and thin in the neck, narrow in the forequarters, high in the 
shoulders, low behind, sharp on the back, and with flat ribs ; their 
only good points being a good leg. Their mutton, however, chief- 
ly from the excellent character of their pasture, w^as of the best 
flavor, and highly valued. By the careful attention of Mr. Ellman, 
of Glynde, the defects were weeded out, and after 50 years of con- 
stant selection of breeding animals, he brought his sheep into 
repute and favor, as the first of the short-wool breeds. Mr. Jonas 
Webb, of Sufl'olk, continued the course of improvement from 1822, 



THE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 



115 



i^ 




fc' 'ii;iiiiiuni'i^iili-."i'= '^VW "■'' 



110 THE SHEPnEUD'S MANUAL. 

but it was only in 1840 that he gained a premium for his stock at 
an exhibition. After this he took a prize at every exliibition of 
his sheep, and m 1843 the Highhind Society paid him the compli- 
ment of having portraits of his prize sheep taken for the museum 
at Edinburgh. In 1855 "Webb's Southdowns were exhibited at the 
Paris exhibition, and a ram, for which $'^,G00 had been refused, 
was presented to the Emperor Napoleon. Since Mr. Webb's 
death, many breeders have made a wide reputation witli the 
Southdowns, and at the present time they hold the position of 
being decidedly the best mutton sheep in the world. As yearlings 
they yield 75 to 80 lbs. in dressed weight, of the choicest meat in 
the market, and a flock of high chai-acter will produce an average 
of G lbs. to the fleece of a wool in demand for flannels and soft 
goods. The ewes are prolific breeders and excellent mothei-s. 
These sheep, as they are now bred, are without horns and with 
dark brown or black faces and legs. The size is medium ; the 
bod)' round and deep ; the forequarlers are wide and deep, and the 
breast is broad. The back is broad and level ; the rump square and 
full, and the thigh full, and massive. The legs are short with line 
bone. The form is smooth, even, tine, and symmetrical, without 
coai'seness or augularitj'- in any part. Tiie habits of these sheep 
are active, and they are docile and contented. Tluy are able to 
accommodate themselves to any district, or style of farming, where 
moderately good pasturage is to be had, and are well suited as 
gleaners upon an arable farm. jMr. Webb's farm was mostly all 
mider tillage. For the improvement of our native sheep in a par- 
ticular direction, they are not to be surpassed, and in tliis respect 
they rival the Cotswold. Indeed, there is scarcely a cross-bred 
race of sheep in England, or Europe, but has been indebted to the 
Southdown for some of its smoothness, rotundity, hardiness of 
constitution, and excellence of flesh. It is an excellent feeder, its 
Iambs are active and hardy, and as the producer of market lambs 
from grade or pure Merino ewes, the Southdown ram has no su- 
perior, or equal, if the favor with which the dark faces and legs 
of the lambs are received by butchers is considered There are no 
fatter lambs come to market than those of a cross of Southdown 
and Merino. The Southdown has become thoroughly naturalized 
in America, and its dark face and compact fleece, impervious to 
the heaviest rains, have left their mark upon a large proportion of 
our natives, ranking in this respect next to the Merino. 

The HAMPsniRE-DOWNS. — The Hampshire-downs have of late 
rapidly risen in favor. Previous to our late war, many of them 
were imported into the southern states under the impression that 



THE nAMPSUIKE-DOVVN SHLEK 



117 



.1 




118 THE SnEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 

they surpassed their rivals aud progenitors, the Soiithdowns, in 
adaptation to the climate. Amidst the vicissitudes of a state of 
war, no stock so rapidly sutlers and disappears as sheep, and as 
Spain lost her ]\Ierinos in the French war of last century, so it is 
j)robahle that the south has lost her Hampshire-downs. It is a 
valuable race of sheep, occupyiui;- a place ^vhcre a larger animal 
than the Southdown is required. It originated in a cross made 
about 70 years ago between a native, white-faced, horned sheep of 
the district, and the pure Soutluknyn. The prepotency, or natural 
vigor aud force of the Southdown ram, entirely changed the char- 
acter of the breed in a few generations. The horns disappeared, 
the face became black, the frame was made more compact, the 
back broader and straighter, the barrel rounder, the legs shorter, 
and the quality of the flesh superior. The cross retained its 
ancient hardiness, its Roman nose, and massive head, and large 
size. It became, in fact, a larger Southdown, maturing at an early 
age, and fatting rapidly. The large size of the lambs of this breed 
make it specially valuable under certain circumstances ; at a year 
old they weigh SO to 100 lbs. The fleece reaches a weight of G to 
7 lbs. of wool suitable for combing, being longer than that of the 
Southdown, and not so line. The mutton of the ITampshirc-downs 
is not overloaded with fat, and has a good proportion of juicy, well 
flavored, lean meat. This breed is occasionally crossed with the 
CotswoU, when it producers a wool more valuable for the worcted 
manufactures than tliat of the pure Cotswold. 

The Dorset Sheep. — This is a breed which inhabits a district 
in the south of England, where it has been preserved intact for a 
long period. It has some very valuable characteristics, one of the 
chief of which is its fecundity, and its ability to breed at an early 
season. The Dorset ewes take the ram in April, yean in Septem- 
ber, and the lambs arc fit for market at Christmas. A large pro- 
portion of the ewes produce and raise twins or triplets. A flock 
is mentioned owned by Mr Pitfield, of Bridport, Dorset, Eng., con- 
sisting of 400 ewes, which raised 555 lambs in one season. The 
ewes are ready for the ram immediately after 5'eaning, and may 
thus produce two crops of lambs in a year. Where market lambs 
can be disposed of, this peculiarity may be turned to good account, 
and with great profit. Both rams and ewes arc horned. They 
have white legs; white, broad, and long faces, with a tuft of wool 
on the forehead; black nose and lips ; low, but broad shoulders ; 
straight back and deep, fuh brisket ; the loins are broad and deep ; 
the legs are rather long, but light in the bone, A related and 
neighboring breed known as " Pink-nosed Somersets," have pink 



THJ:: DOK.SET SHEEP. 



119 




'll»)ili!!;i|||.';.']iini'"i':i'iii:'i"r!':iniiriiiirii)i:.'li!|i 



120 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



noses, and are not so valuable. The Dorsets arc hard}', very quiet 
and docile, and submit to any reasoua]>le management with facili- 
ty, adapting themselves readily to changes. They mature early, 
■weigh 100 lbs. dead weight, at two years old, when folded upon 
turnips alone, for which kind of feeding they are well suited. The 
fleece is close and heavy, yielding C lbs. of white, soft, clean wool 
adapted to combing purposes. The lambs are sheared for their 
fleeces of " lambs wool." When crossed with the Southdown, the 
Dorset ewes produce mostly single lambs, which, when shorn, yield 







Fig. 30. — DORSET EWES OF MR. pitfield's FLOCK. — {From a rhotograpli.) 

about 2 lbs. each of valuable wool, and make, when mature, a 
larger and better feeding sheep, with a heavier and flner fleece 
than the dams. A few Dorsets have been introduced into Vir- 
ginia, but have attracted no notice beyond the simple fact of their 
existence there. They certainly possess some valuable points for 
our use which should make them good subjects for experiment. 

The Cheviot. — The Cheviot hills traverse the boundary be- 
tween England and Scotland. These hills have given their name to 
a very hardy breed of sheep, the origin of which is perhaps some- 
what fancifully dated back to the attempted invasion of England 
by the Spanish Armada. When this formidable and dreaded fleet 
was wrecked upon tlie stormy British coasts, it is said that some 
of the sheep with which the ships were provided, swam ashore and 
escaped to the^e hills, where they bred and multiplied. They 
were originally small, light-boned, hardy sheep, and were spread 
over most of the hilly part of the Scottish lowlands. A hundred 
years ago the attention of breeders was drawn to the Cheviots, and 
they were greatly improved in size and value. It is said that a 



THE CUEVIOT BUEi::P. 



VZi 




6 



122 THE shepherd's manual. 

Lincolnshire cross was used for this purpose, and that a Leicester 
cross was tried and failed. It is now a most useful breed, and 
when fed upon sweet, dry herbage, produces a very choice mutton, 
much sought after by the epicure. It is without horns, the head 
and legs white, but sometimes, though rarely, dun or speckled, the 
face good, but strong featured and massive ; the eyes lively ; the 
body long, set upon clean, fine legs ; the hindquarter and saddle 
full and heavy ; the forequarter light, as in all mountain breeds, 
and in habit they are quiet, docile, and submissive to restraint. As 
a mountain breed they stand first in every respect, and yet are 
very useful lowland sheep. They fatten quickly on turnips, after " 
pasture, without grain, and make a di-essed weight of 80 lbs. at 3 
years old. The ewes are good mothers, and the lambs are very 
hardy, spending the whole season on the hills without shelter, ex- 
cept in drifting storms of snow, when, without protection, they 
would be in danger of being buried in the drifts. The final dispo- 
sition of the Cheviots, when full grown, is to be sold to southern 
farmers, who raise a crop of cross-bred lambs by a Leicester ram, 
and fattening the ewes when the lambs are weaned, sell both to 
the butchers, turning over their capital with interest within one 
year. Upon good pasture the fleece becomes fine, and sells for a 
higher price than when they are fed upon coarse grass. The 
fleece yields about 5 lbs. of medium wool, which furnishes the 
material for the useful and fashionable Scotch tweeds and Cheviot 
cloths. No wool is in greater or steadier demand than this class 
of clothing wool. 

The Black-Faced Scotch Sheep. — This breed is without 
doubt the oldest in Scotland. The story of its origin is obscured 
by tradition. It is known, however, to have existed, much as it 
now is, for several centuries, having disputed possession of the 
hills whereon Norval's " father fed his flock," with the wolves and 
foxes of the semi-civilized period, which preceded the last political 
settlement of Scotland with England. Since the union of the two 
countries, great improvements have taken place m Scotch agri- 
culture, and the Black-faced sheep have gained with it. They are 
a homed breed, the horns of the ram being massive, and spirally 
curved. The face is black, with a thick muzzle ; the eye is bright 
and wild ; the body square and compact, with good quarters and 
abroad saddle. They are very muscular and active, and remarka- 
bly hardy, able to endure the privations incident to a life of con- 
tinual exposure upon bleak and storm-beaten mountains. Only 
the heaviest snow-drifts, followed by thawing, freezing, and crust- 
ipg of the snow, overcome them. They instinctively herd together 



THE BLACK-PiCED SCOTCH SHEEP. 



323 



' / f p' ' 




124 THE shepherd's manual. 

in storms, and although completely bm*ied in a snow-drift will 
manage to push the snow from their bodies and form a cave over 
them, in which they will live upon what scanty herbage may be 
within their reach, until help comes. Thus buried, these sheep 
have lived for two or three weeks before they have been found 
and extricated. After every storm the shepherd's first duty is to 
explore the drifts and release the imprisoned sheep and lambs. 
This hardiness fits them for their roving life upon their rocky 
heather-covered pastures, the heather in part furnishing their sub- 
sistence. They dig the heather from beneath the snow, or feed 
upon it when all else is covered. They are docile, and easily 
handled with the help of the sagacious Colley dogs, and are gen- 
erally sufiiciently able to help themselves in emergencies. Their 
activity is such that the dog is sometimes unable to head off" a 
straying flock, or even to get abreast of it when instinctively 
bound to change their abode. Three days before a storm they are 
on the alert, and seek lower ground and shelter. At lambing 
time, the ewes find retired spots, and year after year return to 
the same locality to rear their lambs. When removed from their 
native haunts, they have been known to journey night and day a 
distance of 60 miles, and to swim a large river, to return to their 
old pasture grounds. As an instance of the sagacity and activity 
of the sheep, it is recorded that a small flock which were thus on 
the way to a former pasture ground, were obstructed by a canal 
which had to be crossed. As they could not easily pass this ob- 
stacle, the flock, headed by an old wether, traveled along the bank 
until they overtook a canal boat which was passing along in the 
center of the canal. The cunning wether sprang on to the boat 
and thence to the opposite bank, the whole flock following in In- 
dian file. These sheep are kept in large flocks, sometimes of sev- 
eral thousand, and frequently of one to four thousand. The 
lambs will survive a surprising amount of cold and hunger, and are 
on their feet almost at the moment of birth. The ewes take the 
greatest care of their lambs, and will remain with them for several 
days, even after accidental or untimely death. 

The mutton of this breed is of peculiarly fine flavor, and the 
saddles are in great request. The carcass weighs about 65 lbs., and 
the fleece averages about 3 lbs. of washed wool. The breed im- 
proves easily under the care of a judicious breeder, but the natural 
qualities of this sheep are such that it is fitted for a place where 
no others would profitably thrive, and a change in its character 
that would cause it to lose this quality would unfit it for its posi- 
tion, and deprive it of its chief value. How vast the room in our 



THE WELSH MOUNTATiq^ SHEEP. 125 

exposed mountain localities, or on our unsheltered northern plains, 
for such a sheep as this ; a race hardy and self-dependent, and 
that would produce choice mutton, and a fleece well adapted for 
rural manufactures of coarse cloths, carpets, blankets, and rugs. 

The Welsh Mountain Shjiep. — This breed is said to be one 
of the indigenous races of Britain. Formerly, it probably roamed 
over hill and lowland of the whole of Wales and adjoining parts 
of England. Of late, more profitable breeds have usurped its 
place in the cultivated lowlands, and have driven it into the re- 
motest pastures or stretches of barren moor, bearing onl}^ gorse 
and heather, upon the sides and summits of the Welsh mountains. 
Here it has so far found a resting place, furnishing those very 
small, but highly appreciated legs and hind quarters, which are 
valued on the tables of wealthy Englishmen as the rarest deli- 
cacies. These legs weigh about 4 lbs., and the whole hind quar- 
ters from? to 10 lbs., and are sold at the confectioner's and fancy 
grocer's shops, at two or three times the price of ordinary mutton. 
A recollection of the tender sweetness of one of these Welsh legs 
is apt to give a higher appreciation of these small sheep than 
might be profitable for a farmer to entertain, yet it is a question 
if there are not many localities amongst our mountain ranges, 
where flocks of these small hardy sheep could be kept with profit. 
As might be expected, these sheep are hardy and good nurses to 
their lambs, rarelj'- producing more than one, except when crossed 
vs^ith improved breeds. The rams are homed, but ewes rarely 
so ; their faces are white, rusty brown, speckled, or gray. The 
head is small and is carried high ; the neck long ; the shoulders 
low ; the rump high ; the chest narrow ; the sides flat ; and the 
girth small. The average fleece yields about 2 lbs. of wool, the 
best of which furnishes the material for the valued Wel»h flannel, 
which never shrinks in washing, and of which sheets and blankets 
are made that last a lifetime. The Welsh wool is all home-spun, 
3,nd is woven at home into all sorts of clothing and domestic 
goods ; the farmers and their families being wholly clothed in 
woolen. The cloths are home dyed, either black, blue, or red. 
The red cloth furnishes the materialfor the women's cloaks, which 
are universally worn, and which, when a French army landed on 
the Welsh coast, in 1797, were mistaken by them for the red coats 
of British soldiers, and hd to their immediate and unconditional 
surrender before the mistake was discovered. This race of sheep, 
comparatively so puny, is a source of much comfort and wealth to 
the Welsh people, and attempts to supplant it by the Cheviot and 
Black-faced sheep, have so far failed. No other sheep can com- 



126 



THE SHEPHEED S MANUAL. 




THE SPAI^ISH MERIKO SHEEP. 127 

pete with them on their native mountain tops, and none are more 
profitable on the lowland pastures, than a cross upon them of 
small pure-bred Southdowns, Cotswolds, or Leicesters. The flocks 
usually kept number from 50 to 500 head. 

The Spanish, French, and German Merinos.— The Merinos 
of Spain, France, and Germany, although they now possess dificr- 
cnt characters and habits, have the same origin. The French, 
Saxon, and Silesian flocks, were all originally from Spain. The 
Spanish Merino existed as a distinct race 2,000 years ago, and the 
fine robes of the Roman Emperors were made from the wool of 
the Spanish flocks. There is no history or tradition as to their 
origin which can be accepted as reasonable by any practical 
shepherd. It is probable, however, that the fine wooled 
sheep, which we read of in the ancient histories, were rather 
the natural product of very favorable conditions of soil and 
climate by which inferior races were greatly improved, than of 
any direct efforts to breed them up to a desired standard. Yet 
luxurious Romans may undoubtedly have created a demand for 
fine wools, which Spanish shepherds knew how to produce by 
coupling suitable animals, for the art of breeding was well under- 
stood in those ancient days, and many of the maxims of modern 
breeders are simply reproductions of those in vogue as long ago as 
the early Christian era. The finest sheep of Spain, when they 
first attracted notice, were found widely scattered over that coun- 
try, divided into varieties occupying distinct provinces, and those 
varieties, again, were subdivided into large flocks, owned by 
wealthy proprietors, each of which flocks possessed such marked 
characters as would entitle it to be considered as a distinct family 
or sub-variety. The system of culture by which these various 
families became possessed of their special characteristics, are well 
described in an essay by Dr. R. R. Livingston, which was pre- 
sented to the Society for the Promotion of Useful Arts, of New 
York, in the year 1809. It is unnecessary here to do more than to 
refer to this work. It is sufficient to record the fact that, at a 
very early period of modern history, Spain possessed the only 
valuable flock of fine wool sheep in the world, and that all other 
naturalized races of Merino, our own included, have been derived 
from that country. It may be added, that to a great extent, if not 
altogether, Spain has lost her pre-eminence, and breeders do not 
now resort thither for fresh importations. The Spanish sheep are 
estimated to number ten millions, in which are included Merinos 
of the two now remaining families, the Infantado or Negretti, and 
the Escurial, and various other fine and coarse wool sheep. The 



138 THE SHErUEKDS MANUAL. 

Negrctti sheep arc of more interest to us than any other of the 
Spanish sheep, as it is of this breed alone that any are now 
brought to this country. The Escurial sheep are of little value to 
us, either for breeding or crossing Avith our own. They are rep- 
resented here by the iSaxon and JSilesian Merino, which have de- 
scended from them, as will be hereafter explained. The Merino 
cannot thrive in a moist climate. A wide range of dry, upland 
pasture is necessary for them, and they do not require a very nutri- 
tious herbage. Wet pastures are very unhealthful for theu*., and 
the liver rot and diseases of the lungs carry them otl* from a large 
flock by thousands, in unfavorable seasons. On this account, the 
Merino has not thriven in England, and it now exists and thrives 
in those countries only where the climate is dry and warm, or 
even hot. 

TuE French Merino. — As this variety has been imported to 
some extent into the United States, and possesses some value for 
crossing upon our native Merinos, or other sheep, it is important 
to notice its character and peculiarities. It originated from an 
importation of a flock of over oOO Spanish sheep, selected from 
the finest flocks of Spain in 178G. This flock was placed upon a 
public farm, for the improvement of stock, at Rambouillet, near 
Paris. In the selection from various sources, it appears that the 
flock was of a mixed character, but by ctu'cful breeding, through 
a coui-se of years, the ditferences became merged into a breed of 
sheep, which surpassed its ancestors, in the opinion of its French 
owners. It was in increased size of carcass and weight of fleece, 
tliat the improvement was chiefly, if not wholly, made. In 1835 
they became the largest pure Merinos in existence, with remark- 
ably loose skin, and immense neck-folds. In 181.2 there were 
flocks of these sheep in France, whose fleeces weighed 14 lbs. for 
ewes, and 20 to 24 lbs. for rams. At this time a flock was imported 
into this country by Mr. D. C. Collins, of Hartford, Ct. The wool 
of these sheep was considered by a competent judge as equal to 
the best Spanish Merino wool. It was of a brilliant, creamy color, 
on a rich, soft, pink skin, which was loose and wrinkled. Their 
form was fine, their constitution excellent, and in size they were 
much larger than the American Merino. In 1846, Mr. Taintor, 
also of Hartford, commenced to import these sheep. Ilis rams 
sheared from 18 to 24 lbs. of unwashed wool, and ewes from 15 to 
20 lbs. The ewes weighed alive from 130 t(^ 200 pounds, and the 
rams from 180 to 300 pounds. There was much less yolk or gum 
in the fleeces than in those of the Spanish sheep, and there was 
consequently less loss in washing the wool. 



THK VRESCn HEiilSO fiUBKF. 



120 



Th« Freneli Merino «oon »pread tUrow^h i\ui noriiumi uiaUtM, 
but tiihny htiUAh'Sii iHXinma dimtitiiiiioA with tUfilr UmtUirutihn^ 
an rjnti\t:irt'A\ with ttj'i Bpanihh hrft^^l/j, and tU';y rapidly f<rU int/> 
t\\h\ii\()r. TU'iy wc.rti not iiiUai tor our rou;;li tarrxiin^^, aud re- 
qnirt'A more vMra tb^in Aw)'?rix;an f^rmfira are IsicVmcA to give U* 
tliC'ir nt/x-k. Tij'; b<;Kt of iheh^; aniwtals were found, witit proper 
care, U> Uj profitahte, but the inferior on/« were entirely worth- 
lii«>. Und/;r hueh eircunifctaar;e« it i» not mirprhilnf/; that they 
Hhoiild falJ out of the ra/^^^j in <x>njp^;tition with natural i//;d Bf/anifch 
MerinoH, whieh, evrn when inferior, were HtiJI valuable, in propor- 
ti/>n Ui ttie goo^l qualitiii« tiixjy retaixiefJ. In Franrxi tiie Kerta^>« 




Fig. 4^1— FBEHfOH MEBIjro. 

have favorably competed with tb'; Enjrlihh brf-'idn as rnutt>on she^^p, 
and it in only rewntly that the Fn^nch aji^rieijltural journaiji 
are bejrinnin^^ U> cjnnpare the profits from the Bouthdowns with 
thone from tb'^ Merin^^. 

At tbe Vienna International Exhibition in 1873, the French 
Meri nrm were largely represented, and were very favorably 
noticed. The Kpf^;imen8 tbere exbibit<jd were large and well 
formed, tbe hkin wa-s free from lart.^e foMK or wrinkles, and tbe 
wool wa» long, fine, strong, and thickly wH on the skin. The beKt 
of tbem, bowever, came from Germany. Tbe ram, whose portrait 
hi here given, was exhibited by Ilerr KannenU-rg, of Gerbin, near 



130 THE SHEPHEKD'S MANUAL. 

Kosternitz, in Pomerania. Its wool was 3 inches in length, very 
thick upon the skin, very equal in quality, of fair strength, and 
covered the legs and ears. The sire of this ram clipped 27 lbs. of 
unwashed wool, which, when washed in hot water, yielded 17 lbs. 
of clean wool. Ferdinand Schwartz, of Lappenhagen, exhibited 
a French, (Rambouillet), Merino ram, whose fleece weighed, un- 
washed, 31:1^ lbs., equal to 15^ lbs. of washed wool. This animal 
had three neck-folds, but no "rose" or rump fold. His wool was 
2f inches long, and thickly set upon the skin. 

Prince Schaumberg-Lippe, of Post Stalitz, Bohemia, exhibited 
some combing or delaine wool Merinos, of French blood, whose 
fleeces were of the extraordinary length of 5 to 7 inches. The 
yield of the whole flock, of more than 800, is said to average 14^- 
lbs. per head of unwashed wool, which shrank in scouring in the 
factory, 58 per cent. It is impossible to consider the excellent 
points and intrinsic merits of the well bred French Merino, and its 
poor success, so far, in this country, without being forcibly remind- 
ed of the lack of wisdom of a course frequently and periodically 
pursued by American breeders and farmers, and nowhere more 
strikingly shown than in the past experience of our sheep husbandry 
with its sudden and excessive vicissitudes. The ' ' ups and downs " 
of this industry, every few years, is one of the strangest manifesta- 
tions of unsteadiness ever recorded in any pursuit. It is unfortu- 
nate for us that we can hardly restrain ourselves from over san- 
guine expectations on the one hand, or on the other hand, when 
results do not meet our anticipations, from the utmost depression. 
Being too ready to form opinions, and to act in obedience rather 
to our sudden impressions than to our mature judgments, we enter 
into new enterprises without consideration, and abandon them in 
a panic. Thus a thing excellent in itself, and of inherent value 
to us, is extolled to the skies without justice at the outset, and 
then with equal want of justice, is condemned and sacrificed as 
utterly valueless, because it has failed to turn all it touched into 
gold. This is the history of all our agricultural manias. And the 
French Merino has been made the subject of just such exalted ex- 
pectations, and of just such deep deuunciatio is. Yet there is a 
place for this breed in our agriculture which it will hold and keep 
at some period in the future in spite of past adverse experiences. 

The Saxon MEKmo.— In 1765 the King of Spain, on the appli- 
cation of his brother-in-law, Prince Xavier, sent 300 Merinos of 
the Escurial family into Saxony. These sheep, naturally the finest 
wooled and the least hardy of the Spanish flocks, were so bred as 
to still further increase the fineness of the fleece, and to diminish 



THE SAXON MERIKO. 131 

their strength of constitution. The ewes yielded from a pound 
and a half to two pounds of washed wool, and the rams from two 
to three pounds. The wool was almost free irom yolk, and re- 
mained clean and wiiite ; the staple was from one Inch to an inch 
and a half in length. The body of this sheep w^as thin, the legs 
long, the neck long and thin, the skin pale, and the constitution 
weak. Yet the beauty and extreme fineness of the wool were 
such (a fiber, not of the finest, measuring V84o of an inch in dia- 
meter) that it overbore the objections to the defects of the sheep. 
While this is the general character of the Saxon sheep, there are 
a few breeders who have striven wdth success to give them more 
size and greater compactness of form. 

The management of the noted Saxon flock of Baron Sternberg, 
from which most of our recent importations of these sheep have 
been made, is worthy o£ note here. This flock consists of 1,200 
head : 600 ewes, 100 rams. 250 lambs, and the rest wethers and 
yearlings. They are kept in one large brick stable, 330 feet long, 
63 feet wide, and 30 feet high ; this is well ventilated, and made 
to be closed in severe weather. The ewes, rams, etc., are kept in 
divisions separated by hurdles, supported by stakes driven into 
the floor. In these are placed fodder-racks and feed troughs. 
Above the stable are hay and straw lofts, floored with boards, 
which are covered with several inches of beaten clay. The litter 
and manure remain in the stable six months at a time, until it is 
in a compact, solid mass, three or four feet thick. The sheep are 
stabled here from November to April, and foddered on straw, hay, 
turnips, and brewers' grains. In summer they are taken out to 
graze from 9 to 13 in the forenoon, and from 3 in the afternoon 
until sunset. Great care is taken in coupling the ewes ; those 
rams being selected that are needed to cover defects or improve 
weak points in the ewes. Mere fineness of wool is not aimed at. 
The greatest possible size of carcass compatible with tine clothing 
wool, and a fleece at least 2J lbs. in weight, are the desired objects. 
The weak and inferior Iambs are killed off when young, and the 
flock is rigorously weeded of all but healthy animals. The value 
of the land upon which this flock is kept with profit is $200 to 
$300 an acre. The importation of Saxon Merinos into the United 
Slates have shown that this breed cannot, under ordinary circum- 
stances, profitably compete with other varieties of Merinos, on ac- 
count of the cost of the shelter and extra care needed for its 
proper management, and the smallness of the fleece. The supe- 
rior fineness of the wool does not bring a sufficiently high price to 
make up for the deficiency in weight. In competition with the 



Vd'Z THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 

American or French Merino, tlie Saxon has been found unprofita- 
ble for the production of wool in the present condition of the 
woolen manufacture, yet there may occur cases in which it can be 
made useful at some future time, w^hen the demand for very fine 
wool may return under the influence of the changes of fashion. 

The Silesian Merino. — The Silesian Merinos have become 
already a successfully acclimated breed in the United States. This 
breed became established through importations from Saxony as 
well as from Spain. The flock out of which the only importa- 
tion into America was made, became naturalized in Silesia by an 
importation of Infantado and Negretti Merinos, in 1811, by 
Ferdinand Fischer, of Wirchenblatt. Mr. Fischer personally se- 
lected 100 Infantado ewes and 4 Negretti rams, and these sheep 
have been interbred without admixture from that date to the 
present. So careful has been the breeding, that since its com- 
mencement over 60 years ago, the pedigree of ever}'" sheep of the 
flock has been recorded. This purity of blood is one of the most 
valuable characteristics of the flock in question, in which, having 
acquired an offshoot from it, we are especially interested. Perfect 
purity of blood gives force, or, to use the breeders' phraseology, 
prepotency to the breed used in crossing on other races, and in- 
sures uniformity of improvement. If this general opinion of 
breedei*s is founded on fact, as must be admitted, then the value 
of the flock to be referred to, can hardly be questioned, and it 
might truly be designated as pure Spanish, instead of, by reason 
of its accidental location, Silesian. As it is, how^ever, generally 
known as Silesian, and is as well entitled to that name as are the 
French Merinos to theirs, it is convenient to continue its use. The 
American Silesian Merinos w^ere imported from the fleck of 3Ir. 
Fischer, by the late Mr. Wm. Chamberlin, of Dutchess Co., N. Y., 
from 1851 to 1856. In all, 213 ewes and 34 rams were imported. 
The ewes shear from 8 to 11 pounds of unwashed wool, the rams 
from 12 to 16 pounds. The wool is from two inches and a half to 
three inches long, dark on the outside, without gum, but with 
plenty of oil of a white and free, but not sticky, character. The 
ewes weigh, alive, from 110 to 130 lbs., and rams from 145 to 155 
lbs. They are hardy, good breeders, and the ewes are good nurses. 
After some years' experience with them, Mr. Chamberlin has 
stated that they do not deteriorate, but that the wool grows finer, 
without losing in the weight of the fleece. They mature slowly, 
and do not reach their full size until four years old ; after eight or 
nine years they become lighter in weight. The mature sheep are 
as large as the ordinary American Merino. The Silesian is simply 



CROSS-BRED SHEEP. 133 

a very high-bred Spanish sheep, resulting from the union of two 
of the best families, and bred for more than half a century for a 
particular purpose by one breeder, or what is r-'^ally equivalent to 
that, a father and son. The fleece is superior in fineness to that of 
any other Merino wc possess, and for a really fine wool, is un- 
rivalled. It Is fortunate that the Silesian Merino begins its career 
ill America under such favorable auspices, and that tiie shepherd 
in charge of the flock, Mr. Carl Heyne, so thoroughly under- 
stands its requirements and management. It is to be hoped that 
the conservative and judicious management of this flock will help 
to establish it success-fully, and to launch it on a long course of use- 
fulness. Kams and ewes of this flock are already being distributed 
by sale tliroughout the country, and the original flock now numbers 
over 800 head. One peculiarity in Mr. Heyne's management, 
is especially noteworthy ; the lambs are yeaned very early in the 
winter. This is of course a matter of choice on the part of the 
shepherd, but it involves the greatest excellence of management, 
and the provision of roots for the maintenance of the nursing 
owes, along with a perfect arrangement f(;r shelter and warmth 
during the winter season. It is obvious that few American breed- 
ers, and still fewer farmers, would find it possible or profitable to 
incur the necessary expense of this sort of management for the 
amount of profit realized from the wool alone. 

Cross-bred Sheep. — It is a somewhat suggestive fact that just 
now the most profitable sheep in Eunjpe are cross-bred. The 
cross-bred races in England are what the English farmers perti- 
nently designate the "rent-paying sheep, " that Ls, that there is more 
money in them than in any others. TIjc cross is ma<le between 
the strictly mutton sheep and the strictly wool-bearing sheep. 
The sheep raised chiefly for wool are of slow growtli and late in 
maturing. The high-bred mutton sheep are high feeders, and re- 
quire the most careful treatment. They have been refined so 
highly that they no longer possess the requisite constitution, nor 
are they so prolific as to satisfy the wants of farmers who depend, 
not upon t!je high prices obtained by breeders for their stock, but 
upon those offered by the purchasers of meat and wool, who can 
only give what the inexorable necessities of the markets enaljle 
them to pay. The cross-bred sheep are of quick growth and early 
maturity ; their mutton is acceptable in the markets ; their fleeces 
are of wide adaptation to woolen manufactures, and they are 
easily fed and make a greater weight of marketable meat with a 
comparatively small consumption of food. In Mr. Lawes' experi- 
ments, related in the Royal Agricultural Journal, it was found that 



134 THE SHEFHERD's MAis^UAL 

the cross-bred sheep could be fed more cheaplj^, for the same 
weight of flesh, than the pure breeds, with but one exception, 
that being the Cotswold. The same necessity to make the most 
profit on the least expenditure, exists with American as with the 
English, French, and German farmers, and we are discovering, as 
they have done, that the cross-bred sheep bring the most money 
to their owners. In England, through the operation of this fact, 
there has been established for some years past a system of ram 
sales, at which breeders of pure blood sheej) offer their surplus 
rams for sale or for hire by the year. By this means farmers are 
enabled to select for themselves such breeding animals as they 
may need. These sales are attended by purchasers from all parts 
of Europe, Australia, and South America, and also by a few of the 
more enterprising breeders of the United States and Canada, or 
their agents. At the Vienna Exposition of 1873, where there were 
exhibited several cross-breeds of sheep which were highly satisfac- 
tory, the favorable results of this system were prominently set 
forth. The most conspicuous of these was 

The Cotswold-Merino. — These are fine examples of sheep. 
They are without horns, with bare faces resembling the Cotswolds, 
but with the pink noses of the Merino; the ears are slightly 
drooping, and the top-knot shorter and less abundant than in the 
Cotswold. The wool is much finer than in the Cotswold, very 
bright, with good curl, thickly set on the skin, and well filled 
with liquid yellow oil, but free from solid yolk or gum. The 
fleece is better closed than that of the Cotswold, and is easily kept 
free from dirt and dust. The flesh is firmer than that of the Cots- 
wold, and thicker than in the Merino, both back and ribs being 
well covered. The girth taken over the wool averages 5 feet 8 
inches. The wool is scant below the knee and hock. This is the 
character of the first cross. When interbred without further 
crossing, this character has been well maintained. The cross-bred 
animals and their produce are of strong constitution, mature 
quickly, becoming prime fat at 12 to 14 months old, and weigh 
alive at that age 140 to 148 pounds. The flock from which some 
of the specimens exhibited at Vienna were taken, numbered 340 
head, and was bred by the Moravian Sugar Factory Company, of 
Keltschan, Austria. The sheep are fed upon waste beet pulp from 
the factory, a small quantity of oats, hay, and oil-cake, in addition 
to clover pasture and mangels, which completes the round of the 
year's feeding. The mutton is held in high esteem, and brings 
the extreme price of 8 cents per pound, live weight, after the 
fleece is sheared. 



THE MERIKO CROSSES. , 135 

There are many other flocks similarly bred in Austria and Hun- 
gary, and all are reported as being equally satisfactory. In refer- 
ence to these sheep, a German agricultural journal published in 
Vienna, in its issue of June 2, 1873, remarks as follows : " Wd 
cannot sympathize with the complaints of the admirers of high, 
fine wool, looking as we do upon the farmer as a merchant who 
must keep up with the times, and supply the wants of the market. 
As the public have ceased to ask for the very fine cloth which was 
so highly valued 50 years ago for its beauty and durability, no one 
can complain that the manufacturer turns his attention to cloths 
of coarser quality, suitable to the present public taste. When the 
manufacturer no longer requires so much of the high, f ne wool, 
the price falls, and the farmer ceases to produce an article that is 
no longer profitable." There could certainly be nothing more 
pertinent to our own case than this. The same need has found its 
same remedy here, and the Cotswold-Merino is largely bred for 
the production of market lambs, and some of our best breeders are 
giving their attention to the establishment of permanent flocks of 
this cross, with promising results. 

The Southdown-Merino. — This cross has been tried with 
success in Germany upon a middle quality of land, not sufficiently 
productive to support the heavier bodied Cotswold-Meriuos. The 
first crossbred sheep possess good feeding qualities, and when bred 
together without further crossing, keep well up to the standard of 
the parents. The Arch Duke Albrecht has a flock of 1,400 of this 
cross, of which some specimens were exhibited at Vienna. The 
wool is rated as middle fine, weighing 3^ Ibs.-to the fleece in the 
shearlings, and 3 lbs. in the two shearlings. This cross made 
upon grade Merinos, is very common in the United States, where 
early market lambs are produced, there being no fatter, better, or 
more desirable lambs to the butcher, although there are heavier, 
than those from this cress. As in the Cotswold-Merinos, the first 
cross is the best for interbreeding. 

The Leicester-Merino. — This cross is a somewhat unusual 
one, and does not appear to have been made with a view to the 
permanent establishment of a new race of sheep, except in rare 
instances where the possession of a suitable breed of Merinos and 
the taste of the proprietor have been coincident. In one case only 
has the effort to establish this cross been reported in any publica- 
tion of wide circulation. The history of a flock of about 500 Lei- 
cester-Merinos, bred by M, E. "Pluchet, of Trappes, France, given 
to the Central Agricultural Society, of France, in January, 1875, is 



136 



THE SHEPHEKD'S MAKUAL. 




THE COTSWOLD CROSSES. 137 

published by Eugene Gayot, the well known writer upon live 
stock, in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique^ of the 37th of May 
following, with a portrait of one of these sheep which is reproduced 
here. The course followed by Mons. Pluchet during the 36 years 
of his persevering effort is very suggestive and instructive. He 
commenced in 1839 by coupling his Rambouillet Merino ewes, 
weighing about 68 pounds when dressed for the butcher at 3 years 
old, with a pure Leicester ram of moderate size. The effort to 
produce what he wanted, by one cross only, failed. At first the 
lambs were too small, and the fleece was too light. Greater suc- 
cess was made by crossing the half-blood ewes with rams of 
quarter Leicester blood. The produce, containing three-eighths 
Leicester, and and five-eighths Merino blood, were much improved, 
giving a much longer and better fleece than the half or quarter, 
bloods. After continuing a course of breeding the produce of 
this cross together, up to 1856, a new type of animal, entirely dif- 
ferent from its ancestors, resulted. The carcass was much larger 
than in the Merino, the wool was not so long as that of the Lei- 
cester, but finer and softer ; the face was free from wool, and the 
head was square, with large, prominent eyes. The bone was 
remarkably fine ; the flesh solid, and the ewes were prolific and 
remarkably good nurses ; but neither the carcass nor the fleece 
were sufllciently heavy to be profitable. The ewes of this cross 
were coupled with a pure Leicester ram, and the produce being 
eleven-sixteenths Leicester, were again crossed with rams of three- 
eighths Leicester, or of the previous cross. The sheep thus pro- 
cured were Si- sixteenths Leicester and 7i-sixteenths Merino, or 
nearly half bloods. The close in-and-in-breeding of this cross 
gave a race of sheep that, when fed on the same pastures as the 
original Merinos, produced exactly the same dead weight of meat 
of superior quality at 24 months, that the Merinos gave at 36 
months, and a fleece weighing 9J lbs. in the yolk, which sold at a 
higher price per pound than the Merino fleece. Under the cir- 
cumstances in which Mons. Plachet was placed, the result was 
very profitable, and the new race he originated occupies a place 
which neither of the original parents was able to fill. Under a 
system of close breeding, without fresh admixture, the quality and 
character of this flock are maintained, and the ewes continue to 
be both prolific of lambs and milk, and are excellent nurses. 

Cotswold-Leicester. — A very handsome cross-bred is pro- 
duced by the union of the Cotswold ram with the Leicester ewe. 
The fleece of this cross is of a silky fiber, beautifully waved and 
curled. The wool partakes of the fineness and luster of the Lei- 



138 THE shepherd's manual. 

cester, and the strength and weight of the Cotswold. It is in 
great request for the manufacture of fine dress braids, and is 
sought by the manufacturers chiefly in Canada, where the cross 
is most common. The cross is hardier than the pure Leicester, 
and yields a fine mutton, but when bred together, the produce 
is very apt to deteriorate. The portrait given on page 139 repre- 
sents a ewe bred by Mr. Burdett Loomis, of Windsor Locks, Ct., 
and very much resembles one bred by the author. 

CoTSV/OLD-SouTHDOWN. — The Southdown is par excellence the 
mutton sheep of the world. But mutton alone is not profitable ; 
there must be a fleece as well as the carcass, to repay the cost of 
feed and care. The Cotswold is a profitable wool bearer, but its 
mutton is not so desirable as that of the Southdown, nor is its 
fleece adapted to a wide variety of uses in manufacture. If the 
excellencies of the two breeds could be combined, and better mut- 
ton than the Cotswold, and a better fleece than either be produced 
by amalganaating the difi'erent bloods, a desirable result would be 
reached. In this lies the whole secret of the desire to produce 
cross breeds. In the efibrt to reach this result, all the cross breeds 
have been obtained. It cannot be supposed that sheep breeders 
have yet reached the limit of profitable crossing. The constant 
change in the public taste for cloths, dress goods, and fabrics, and 
the new-found needs and capabilities of various and peculiar local- 
ities, will ever operate to cause new crosses and combinations of 
breeds, and to furnish opportunities for the skillful exercise of the 
breeder's art. The Cotswold and the Southdown bloods flow 
together in more than one firmly established cross breed, but with 
other admixtures. Efi'orts to combine these two breeds alone, and 
to produce a new race which shall be more profitable than either 
alone, have been made of late both in this country and in Germa- 
ny. In the latter country the Moravian Sugar Factory Company, 
previously mentioned in this chapter, have formed a flock of 
cross-bred sheep which successfully answers the purpose of pro- 
ducing mutton and a wool which, for certain manufactures, is 
desirable and profitable. 

In the United States, Mr. William Crozier, of Beacon Farm, 
near Northport, Long Island, has commenced to breed a flock 
and found a race which he calls the Beacon-downs. His suc- 
cess so far has been encouraging. A description of this sheep 
with the portrait, from which it is here reproduced, appeared in 
the American Agriculturist of June, 1875. The flock was com- 
menced six years ago by crossing Southdown ewes with a Cots- 
wold ram, and the first cross, being very satisfactory, was interbred. 



THE COTSWOLD-LEICESTER SHEEP. 



139 




140 THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 

It was found to maintain its original character perfectly, produc- 
ing a sheep which yielded a fleece of wool closer and finer than 
that of the Cotswold, but not so long, weighing from 11 to 13 lbs., 
and a much heavier carcass of mutton of a quality equal to that of 
the Southdown which weighed, at three years old, 150 lbs. The 
ewes are prolific, the lambs strong, healthy, and maturing quickly, 
reaching a live weight of 140 to 160 lbs. at twelve months. They 
are found to be equally suitable to the light pastures of Long 
Island, with either the pure Southdown or the pure Cotswold, and 
are perfectly at home beneath the hot summer suns of our climate. 
It is a coincidence which is not at all remarkable, being founded 
on common necessities, that in producing this and other crosses, 
the Germans and ourselves have taken up the same materials to 
work with. The climates of both the United States and southern 
Germany are similar ; the summers are hot and dry, and the win- 
ters compel the use of preserved and dry food for a considerable 
length of time. The breeds wbich would be suitable to the mild, 
moist, and even climate of England, are not exactly adapted to 
Germany or the United States, and we must hesitate to follow, or 
must follow with great caution, the lead of the English breeders. 
But the example or success of the Germans may be made more 
safely applicable to our circumstances, inasmuch as the conditions 
in both cases are similar. This coincidence is a proof of the fact 
that in working out these changes, breeders and farmers are forced 
to follow certain natural laws, and that as they work in conform- 
ity thereto, they succeed, but when they oppose these laws, they 
must necessarily fail. It is in exact accordance with this fact that 
we find it difiicult or impossible to preserve, for any length of time, 
the condition of sheep imported from England, more especially 
of the more highly refined breeds ; but that we can easily accli- 
mate their produce, or build up cross breeds which will be more 
profitable and convenient for us to keep. With our wonderful 
diversity of climate, soil, and surface, and with the varied demand 
for staples for manufactured fabrics, there is opened a field for 
the exercise of the breeder's skill in producing new races to accom- 
modate these conditions, and to meet these demands, which is 
hitherto unexampled in the history of agriculture. This is no 
mere matter of conjecture. It has been clearly demonstrated by 
experience and practice. Wool of the cross between the Cots- 
wold or Leicester rams on Merino ewes has been imported into 
New York from New Zealand and Australia, for some years past, 
to meet the demands of the manufacturers of delaines and other 
staple goods. Our wool-buyers have been in the habit of going to 



THE VALUE OF CKOSS-BRED SHEEP, 



141 




142 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

those distant countries to select wools suitable for tlieir needs 
which they cannot procure at home. The heavy expenses involved 
act as a protection to this industry here, not to speak of the pres- 
ent import duty levied on foreign vf ools. Large quantities of this 
cross-bred wool are also used in England, where it cannot be pro- 
duced so cheaply as here. It would be strange indeed if we can- 
not, with our vast territory, equally favorable in climate and soil 
with those distant regions of the southern hemisphere, at least 
compete on equal terms with the shepherds of those countries, 
more especially as we enjoy an immense advantage, which they 
do not, in having a market at our very doors for the mutton which 
these sheep so profitably produce. In short, the production of 
American cross-bred sheep offers a most enticing field for experi- 
ment and labor both to the skillful breeder and the enterprising 
farmer. For the first in keeping up a supply of pure bred rams, 
and in improving their quality so as to meet the demand of the 
farmer ; and for the latter in seeking out, selecting, and using these 
pure rams on our native sheep with proper knowledge, judgment, 
and skill, so as to supply the demands of our own manufacturers 
at least, if not those of other countries. To do this there must be 
an actual contact and interchange of ideas and experiences be- 
tween the woolen manufacturer and the breeder and farmer, by 
means of which the needs of the one and the opportunities and 
duties of the others, may be mutually explained and made known. 
Neither branch of our native wool industry can flourish as it 
should and might without this interchange of views and the 
recognition of an identity of interest. 



CHAPTER VI. 
WOOL— ITS STRUCTURE AND USES. 

Wool in its character and structure in no respect differs from 
hair. When hair is soft, pliable, and of a spiral or wavy form, it 
is what we call wool. Wool, like hair, is the outer covering of 
some species of animals, and is a growth from the skin. The skin 
of an animal is a composite structure consisting of two portions, 
the outer and insensible layer called the epidermis, and a highly 
sensitive, vascular and nervous layer beneath this, called the 



STRUCTURE OF WOOL. 



143 



derma. It is in the derma tliat the hair is rooted, and from it 
that it is nourished. The hau', (or wool), consists of two portions, 
the shaft, or that which pierces through the epidermis and forms 
the outer coat or fleece, and the bulb or root which is imbedded in 
the derma. The bulb of the hair is rooted in a gland called the 
hair follicle^ and from this it derives the cells which form the outer 
surface of the hair. These cells are converted into flat scales, in- 
closing the interior fibrous structure of the hair, and as they are 
successively produced, they overlap like shingles on a roof, or the 
scales of a pine cone, forming the imbricated coat of the hair to 
be hereafter described at length. Rising into the hair bulb is the 
hair germ, which furnishes the hair with nutrition, and the ele- 
ments of its growth. On each side of the hair follicle is a gland 
which secretes a viscid fluid. These glands, known as the sebace- 
ous glands, open by small canals into the sheath of the hair. Other 




Fig. 47.— SECTION OP SKIN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED, SHOWING THE GROWTH 

OF THE HAIR. 

sebaceous glands open independently upon the surface of the epi- 
dermis. They secrete a fluid which serves to lubricate the skin, 
and in the sheep supplies the oil and yolk that fill that pur- 
pose for the fleece and prevent any injury to the wool by con- 
tinued rubbing, or " cotting," or felting, in consequence of the 
wearing and friction, while upon the sheep's back. In a healthy 
skin this secretion with those of other glands, (called the sudor!- 



144 



»C3 



THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 



parous glands), which are situated in the derma, amount to a total 
quantity which surpasses that of the evacuations from both the 
bowels and kidneys. 

In tig. 47 is shown the structure both of the skin and the hair, 
the engraving, (from Chauveau's Comparative Anatomy of the Do- 
mestic Animals), representing a section of the skin highl}' magni- 
fied. The epidermis is shown at A, the derma at B, the hair follicle 
at c, the sebaceous glands at 1, the bulb or root of the hair at 2, the 
hair at 3, a fat cell at 4, a sudoriparous or sweat gland at 5, and at 6 
the excretory duct of this gland, or pore of the skin. 

Hair or wool is composed of three layers. The outer one, the 
epidermis, is very thin, consisting of the flattened cells or scales 
overlapping as previously mentioned. In wool these imbricated 
scales are highly developed, and fill a most important ofllce, giving 





a 



Fig. 48.— APPEARANCE OF WOOL WHEN HIGHLY MAGNIFIED. 



to it much of its value as a material for the manufacture of cloth. 
When examined by a microscope of high power, a fiber of wool 
presents the appearance shown in fig. 48. The discovery of the 
serrated surface of wool which is generally attributed to Mr. 
Youatt, was previously announced by M. Monge, in Atuiales de 
Chimie, in 1795. This serrated or toothed surface confers upon wool 
its felting property. When wool is carded it is torn to pieces and 
mixed and twisted in every direction. The waved or curved 
structure of the fiber of some qualities of wool aids in this twieting 
and entangling of the fibers, (see fig. 49), and the points of the 
scales projecting as so many minute hooks hold the entangled 
mass together closely and firmly. Pressing, rolling, or beating 



CHARACTERISTICS OF WOOL AND HAIR. 



145 



the wool together, causes it to adhere in a compact mass, in 
other words causes it to felt firmly together, and the more 
firmly, the more it is rolled, beaten, or worked. These scales 
are very minute and numerous; in the length of one inch of a 
fiber of fine Saxony wool, there are no less than 2,720 of them ; in 
Southdown wool there are over 2,000, and in the Leicester wool 
there are over 1,800 of them to 
every inch. Upon the whole sur- 
face of a fiber of Merino wool one 
inch long and V750 of an inch in 
diameter, there are over 23,000 of 
these points. The more numer- 
ous they are, and the more waved 
or curled the wool, the better its 
felting quality. 

The second layer, the cortical 
substance, is the thickest portion of 
the fiber. It also contains the 
coloring matter. It is fibrous and 
striped lengthways. The central 
portion of the fiber consists of the 
medullary substance, or marrow, 
and occupies a narrow, irregular 
cavity. Hair or wool is not hollow or tubular, as is frequently 
supposed, but solid, and consists of these three portions. The fiber 
grows from the root, and increases by addition of cells continuous- 
ly formed in the follicle. It is thus seen that the growth and per- 
fection of the wool depends in the most intimate manner upon 
the nutiition and perfect health of the animal. An interesting 
and valuable addition to the natural history of wool and hair has 
recently been made through some investigation ordered by the 
Secretary of the Treasury of the United States, for the purpose of 
identifying the presence of sheeps' wool in manufactured goods, the 
materials of which are ostensibly the hair of the cow and calf. 
The investigations were made by Professors John L. LeConte and 
J. J. Woodward, of Washington, D. C, with the help of a micro- 
scope magnifying nearly 100,000 times, (810 diameters). The full 
report of these investigations is published in the Bulletin of the 
National Association of Wool Manufacturers, Vol. V, No. 7, 1875, 
(Boston), a publication of the greatest value to intelligent wool- 
growers as to all woolen manufacturers. After describing the well 
known structure of hair and wool, the report proceeds : " But not- 
withstanding this similarity of structure, most of the individual 
7 



Fig. 49. — FIBERS OF WOOL,. 



146 THE shepherd's manual. 

hairs of the cow and calf arc so unlike the majority of those of 
the wool-bearing animals in their size and shape, that it might 
seem easy to make the distinction. They are much shorter, much 
thicker at their base, taper rapidly towardk> the point ; the medulla 
occupies a larger proportional part of the whole hair, and the free 
edges of the scales of the cuticle, which are so disposed as to form 
from twenty to forty imbrications to the ^'looth of an inch, lie 
quite smoothly upon the surface of the hairs, so that their con- 
tours, as seen under the microscope, closely approximate continu- 
ous lines. These characters are so well marked that the coarser 
hairs of the cow and calf can readily be distinguished from the 
woolly hairs of any of the wool-bearing animals. On the other 
hand, however, the majority of the woolly hairs of the sheep offer 
a combination of characters which are never found in the hairs of 
the cow and calf; namely, each of these hairs extends from half 
an inch to several inches in length without any medulla, and 
without perceptible taper. They present at frequent but irregular 
intervals, well marked, one-sided, more or less spirally arranged 
thickenings of the cortical substance, which give to the wool its 
curly character. The mean diameter of each hair varies from 
Yeooth to the Vioooth of an inch, or even less ; and the scales of the 
cuticle are so arranged that their free edges project somewhat^ 
forming well-marked imbrications, of which usually from fifteen 
to thirty can be counted in the Viooth of an inch. The fine hairs 
of the goat and kid, from the Vioooth to the '/soootli of an inch or 
less in diameter, also run from half an inch to an inch or more, 
without perceptible taper, without medulla, and are clothed with a 
cuticle resembling that of sheep's wool, but are almost^ or alto- 
gether, devoid of the irregular thickenings of the cortical sub- 
stance which characterizes the latter. Similar hairs are found in 
certain deer, and some other animals, but never on the cow or 
calf." The report is accompanied bj' highly finished lieliotype 
illustrations of samples of different kinds of hair and wool. 
The chemical composition of pure, dry wool, is as follows : 

COMPOSITION OF PURE WOOL. 

Carbon ^ 49.35 per cent. 

Hydro2:en 7.57 " " 

Nitrocren 15.86 " " 

Sulphur 3.66 " " 

Oxygen 33.06 " " 

100.00 " *' 

The fibers of fine wool are very closely seated upon the skin. 
The pure Merino has from 40,000 to 48,000 fibers on a single 



'JJ/K yOLK OF WOOL. 147 

gquare incli ; the ori;^nnal coarBC woolcd breedg bavc from 5 fm to 
6,W0 fifwflon an inch. The twentieth cr^>ft8 of a pure Moiino 
ram uprjn a coarwe wool ra^;^^ had no morr; than 25/X>0 fitx tb to fh^ 
square inch; thiK fact bJjowh very forcibly how Ion;,' a prriod 
it may take to remove the e/fectH of one croBB, for if tluB Htatc- 
ment be true, the presence r^ only %„,,„,„ (1,bs than one'mil- 
lionth part), of impure blood in BuHicient Uj reduce the finr-nesft of 
the fler^;e nearly one-half. The yolk which is g^x-ret^d from the 
glandH ol the nkin in an alkaline Hubstance, partaking of thr- r-har- 
acter of a 8oap. At its necretion it In liquid, and in f;ome breeds 
of Bheep It remains in this state, moistening and softening the 
fleece ; jn other breeds, particularly some families of the Mr-rinos 
the yolk thickens or drien into a sort of gum or wax of an or.nge 
yellow color, which adheres to the wool in 8r;ales,and greatly adds 
to Its weight. The yolk or - suint " has been found by l)r 
Voelcker to consist of a combination of fatty acids with potash" 
fonnjng a potash soap which is soluble in water. When dried* 
the yolk contains 00 rx;r cent of fatty compounds, with some nitro* 
gen, and 41 per cent of mineral matter, of which from 00 U) 84 pr-r 
cent is potanh. In some places this potash is profitably recovered 
from the refuse liquid of wool washings. In November, 1805, 
Maumen^j and Uogelet communicated to the Chemical Society of 
Paris, the details of their experiments on the nature of suint, 
which led them to take out a patent for the manufacture of potash 
salts from this source. They showed that suint is made up of 
TiJiutral fatty salts containing much potash, but not more than 
traces of soda, and rarely even that; that the soluf>le portion 
yields on evaporation and calcination a mixture consisting mainly 
of carbonate of potassium, with chloride, sulpliate, phosphate, and 
alumino-silicate of potassium in smaller quantities, also a litfle 
lime, magnesia, and oxide of iron and maDganese, the average 
composition being 

Carbonate of potassiam 80 78 

CMorJde " " a\f. 

SuJpfjate " " ..il. *.'.*.'.'.'.'.'.*.*.*.'.'!.'.'.','.'.*]."" 2 83 
Other substances ''.'.'.'....'.'..'.'.'...'.'.'.... 4.2 1 

The yolk soluble in water forms from 30 to 22 per cent of the 
weight of the fleece, and besides this, the fleece contains from 7 to 
10 per cent of oil, which is not removed in ordinary brook wash- 
ing unless it be in part dissolved by the action of the supera- 
bundant potash of the soapy yolk. When the oil and yolk 
are removed by washing, the wool becomes harsh and dry to 



148 THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 

the touch. The presence of a considerable amount of yolk in the 
fleece is justly supposed to indicate a superior quality in the wool, 
and while excessive yolk is undesirable, it is a disputed point just 
when that excess begins. A fleece of Merino wool that loses one- 
half in washing, can scarcely be said to have an excess of yolk. 
Many breeders do not hesitate to go beyond this, and insist that 
no amount of yolk can be called excessive. In this view they are 
supported by the high authority of Mr. Youatt, who has said : 
*' farmers never bestow a thought on yolk, and neither understand 
nor care about it ; this question without doubt will some day be 
regarded as one of the very cardinal and essential points of the 
sheep." Mr. Randall, our highest authority on fine wool, in his 
work previously referred to, does not favor the production of yolk 
to an excessive extent. He very justly remarks that when manu- 
facturers cease to pay the same price for excessively yolky wools 
as for those which are only moderately yolky, the breeding of 
sheep that produce four pounds of yolk for one pound of wool, 
must go out of fashion. Perhaps this matter may safely be left in 
the hands of the manufacturers, who are not apt to pay for what 
they do not want ; and while they continue to buy excessively 
yolky wool, it will be most profitable for the farmer to produce it. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WOOLS. 

Wool is generally classed as short and long. It is also graded as 
superfine, fine y medium^ and coarse. The terms carding and combing 
wools are no longer suflSciently distinctive, as many kinds of wool 
are now combed that were formerly carded, and the continued 
improvement of combing machinery gradually adds to the list of 
combing wools. Merino wools of less than three inches in length 
are now combed, as are the short wools of the Southdown grades. 
It is very important for wool-growers to know exactly the wishes 
and needs of the wool manufacturers, and to seek this knowledge 
should be their constant aim. At present, and for some time past, 
the coarse and medium wools have, in many parts of the country, 
borne the same price as the finest Merino w^ools ; in some markets 
fleeces of one-quarter and half-blood Merinos have sold for more 
than those from full-blood animals. The quotations of wool in the 
New York Mercantile Journal of July 29th, 1875, were as follows : 

NEW YORK, MICHIGAN, AND INDIANA WOOLS. 

Super Saxony fleece 50c.@52 c. 

Full blood Meriuo 50c.@52 e. 

i to i blood Merino 48e,@50 c. 

Common fleeces 45c.@47ic. 

Combing wool ' 60 c. 



VALUE OF MEDIUM WOOLS. 149 

OHIO AND PENNSYLVANIA WOOLS. 

Choice Saxony fleece XX 50c.@53 c. 

Full blood Merino X : 48c.@50 c. 

i blood Merino 50c.@54 c. 

i blood Merino 45c.@47sc. 

ILLDJOIS, WISCONSIN, AND IOWA WOOLS. 

Super Saxony 45c.@50c. 

Full blood Merino 45c.@50c. 

i blood Merino 46c.@50c. 

The demand of manufacturers is clearly for medium wools, the 
yroduce of half-bloods or grade Merinos, or of crosses of Merinos 
with Southdowns. The chief difficulty in wool-growing is the 
tendency on the part of farmers to run in a crowd upon the same 
variety and quality ; at one period it will be fine wool, at another 
combing wool, and often they arc led to breed without knowledge 
or judgment. A great variety of wools is needed to meet the de- 
mands of manufacturers, and when a farmer has become possessed 
of a flock of the right sort, his best course is to keep to it, and not 
change because a temporary decline in his class of wool discour- 
ages him for a season. In addition to these grade Merino wools, 
there is a constant and increasing demand for combing wools for 
worsted and coarse fabrics. 

Combing wools are those fitted for a process known as combing, 
which consists in drawing out the fibers so that they are straight 
and parallel, the shorter portions of the wool called "noils" being 
removed by the operation. The fibers are then spun into worsted 
yams ; the ends of the fibers being covered in the spinning, these 
yarns are smooth and lustrous. In carding, the fibers are placed 
in every possible position with regard to each other ; the ends 
projecting from the yarn, form a nap in the woven fabric which 
covers and hides the threads. Carding wool must therefore be 
short and full of curls ; combing wool, on the contrary, needs to 
be long and free from curls and of a bright and lustrous surface. 
Long Merino wools, although they are combed for making fine 
cloths without nap, and for delaines, cashmeres, coburgs, and other 
dress goods, are not designated combing wools, but as delaine 
wools. Common flannels require in their manufacture the coarsest 
common native wools up to medium Merino wools. For fine 
flannels, fine to the finest wools are used; for blankets, the most 
ordinary native wools, *' noils," medium Merino wools and South- 
down and grade Southdown wools are used. For shawls, all 
grades of Merino wools, up to picklock, are used ; some fleecy 
varieties arc made of worsted combing wools ; felted cloth skirts 
and other goods are made of the lowest grades of wool, but the 



150 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

finer kinds, as piano and table covers, are made of medium Merino 
wools. Knitted goods, such as undershirts, vests, drawers, hose, 
etc., require a great variety of wools from the lowest qualities up 
to the high grades of Merino ; certain fancy varieties requiring 
the finer kinds of combing wools. Fancy cassimeres, meltons, 
beaver cloths, and overcoatings, require chiefly medium grades of 
Merino wool, a small quantity only of the finer grades beino- re- 
quh-ed for the best qualities. For mixing with shoddy, which is 
an extensive manufacture, the finest and longest Merino wools are 
found the most profitable, as such wool carries the greatest quan- 
tity of the short fiber of the substitute. Ladies' cloths, cloakings, 
and thm dress goods require fine long Merino wool ; the finest 
and longest Merino wool is used for men's fine worsted coatings. 
Serges, moreens, alpacas, lastings, mohair lusters, furniture dam- 
ask, reps, bunting for flags, webbmgs of all kinds, sashes, 
picture cords, tassels, and soft goods, such as nubias and shawls, 
braids and bindings, are all made of the long combing wool 
of the Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, or their grades. 
For various carpets, coarse Texan or Mexican and California 
wools are used, and similar grades of foreign wool known as Chili 
and Cordova carpet wools. This enumeration indicates as closely 
as need be, what kinds of wool the American farmer may grow 
with safety and without risk of wanting a market. Considering 
that the imports of wool of many of the grades mentioned, and of 
the recapitulated woolen goods, amount every year to fifty mil- 
lions of dollars or over, there would certainly seem to be no danger 
that the farmer will lack a profitable market for any kind of wool 
he may find it convenient to grow. 

PURE AND GRADE MERINO WOOL. 

It will be noticed how large a proportion of the foregoing man- 
ufactures derive their material from the Merino, either directly in 
its pure state, or indirectl}'' as grades or cross breeds. Some infor- 
mation as to the character of the Merino wool, and the tests by 
which superior breeding animals may be known and selected for 
the improvement of native sheep, will therefore not be out of 
place. The character of a Merino fleece may be judged by the 
following tests, viz : 

Strength of Fiber. — This is indicated by the amount of grease in 
the wool, abundance of oil or yolk indicating a healthy condition 
of the animal. The first sign of disease is a change in the charac- 
ter of the secretions, and the skin being the chief secreting organ 
of the body, it is there that the change may be soonest noticed. 



HOW TO JUDGE WOOL. 



151 



The moment the health of the sheep fails, the growth of the wool 
is arrested, along with the secretion of the oil or yolk, and the 
continuity of the strength of the fiber is destroyed to the great 
reduction of its value. 

Fineness. — In a perfect fleece, the wool should be equally fine 
over the whole body ; coarser wool may be looked for, if any- 
where, on the top of the shoulders and the rump, and a weaker 
quality on the breast and belly. The finest wool is but V1200 of 
an inch in thickness, ordinary wools Vtso to Vsao of an inch in 
diameter. 

Curl.—ThQ curl of the wool is very important. This is the 
waved or crimped character of the fiber which in the perfect wool 
consists of minute bends or crimps. There should be a perfect 
regularity in these waves, which ought not to be so abrupt as to 
appear as folds. In very fine wool there should be at least 30 of 
these waves to the inch in length. (See <Z, e., fig. 49.) 

Thickness. — This quality refers to the closeness of the fibers 
upon the skin. A pure Merino should have from 40,000 to 48,000 
fibers upon every square inch of its skin. The weight of a fleece 
must necessarily depend on this characteristic. 

Closure of the Fleece. — The closure of the fleece on its outer 
surface is of great importance, for the reason that a well closed 

fleece is im- 
pervious to 

dust and dirt 

which would 

otherwisefind 

its way into 

the wool and 

injure its 

quality. The 

closure is ef- 
fected by the abundance of yolk 
which gathers at the ends of the 
wool, and mats the fibers together. 
The viscid gum gathers dust, that 
coats the fleece with a black surface, which feels to the hand 
as a firm crust. When the crust is pressed the elasticity of 
the fleece is at once perceived. Upon parting the fleece to inspect 
the wool, the experience or ignorance of the operator is at once 
perceptible. He should grasp the fleece at the points of the fibers 
with the fingers and thumbs of both hands, and part the surface 




T2/Zy.^- 



Fig. 50. 




Fiff. 51. 



152 



THE SHEPHEED'S MANUAL. 







Fig. 53. 




¥ig. 53. 



gently, exposing the wool to the skin. The wool, on opening the 
fleece, should appear beautifully white and glossy, or rich yellow 
or orange colored, according to the style of the sheep. The fleece 
is then closed carefully without allowing any dust to fall down 
into the opening. The appearance of the open fleece should be 
banded with varying colors of light and darker yellow or orange, 
as in fig. 50, or when opened, as 
a cup in fig. 51. A well closed 
fleece will exhibit a surface as 
shown at fig. 52, and a badly 
closed one will appear as at fig. 
53. The well closed fleece is di- 
vided into small sections, which 
are tabular or flat and smooth 
upon the surface ; when the fleece is uneven in length, it cannot 
close well, and a few fibers only are matted together ; the surface 
is then dotted and not smooth ; this forms the defect known as 
" toppiTiessy The defects in wool may be enumerated as follows : 

" Stripy " or Watery Wool^ generally shows itself in inferior ani- 
mals on or near the shoulder, where the best wool ought to be. 
The wool subject to this defect is devoid of those beautiful natu- 
ral curves or waves which are characteristic of really good wool. 
When compressed in the hand, it has no elasticity, and handles in 
a dead and lifeless manner, more like flax than wool. Such wool 
is only fit for making inferior goods. This defect is a sure 
proof of impure blood, and no sheep exhibiting it should be bred 
from. 

Toppiness is not of much importance as affecting the quality of 
the wool, but it indicates a defect in the breeding of the sheep. It 
has already been described. When this defect, however, extends 
to a matting together of the wool at the ends of the points, a 
quantity of noils are made in working the wool, and there is a 
waste. When toppiness is found in the fleece of old sheep, it be- 
comes a more serious objection, as it is quite possible that a lamb's 
fleece may be toppy by reason of uneven growth in its early life, 
and after having once been shorn, the defect may not reappear. 

Broad-topped Wool is seriously defective, and very decidedly 
reduced in value ; no animal having this defect should be kept in 
a flock having any pretentions to character for excellence. It 
consists in an interlacing of the ends of the fibers which are split 
from the top downwards. The fleece appears in good condition 
superficially, with a good even top, but the surface is divided into 



DEFECTS OF WOOL. 153 

broad masses or " tops," and when one endeavors to part these to 
examine the wool, the mass is found to be almost felted together, 
and must he torn apart. This matted wool is dead, and breaks off 
in the process of manufacture, causing very great loss of material. 

Felty Wool is that which has a tendency to felt together on the 
sheep's back. The defect is caused by an absence of yolk, and in 
highly yolked sheep, by a continued wet season, which washes 
the yolk from the fleece. It is a direct result of low condition 
from poor feed, or of chronic ill health. Some sheep are consti- 
tutionally subject to "felty wool," and should be weeded out of 
the flock. 

Cloudy Wool is that which adheres together from the bottom of 
the fleece upwards, but not in so great a degree as in felty wool. 
A flossy appearance is discovered at the bottom of the staple, 
which is removed by the comb. In clothing wools this is not so 
objectionable as in combing wools ; in the latter the floss is thrown 
out and becomes waste. This is also a constitutional defect, and 
sheep so affected should be weeded out of an otherwise good flock. 

Kemp is very easily detected, and although it may be found in 
but a few spots at first sight, it indicates that it exists all through 
the fleece. It consists of coarse, white hairs, projecting from the 
surface of the fleece, on the face, the forearm, the inside of the 
flank, and in rams on the scrotum also. Whenever it is apparent 
in these places, it will invariably be found through the greater 
part of the fleece, chiefly on the whole of the belly, half-way up 
the sides, on the rump, thighs, and shoulder. In these places, 
short white hairs will be found in the staple, at the roots of the 
wool ; and as these hairs will not take any dye, they injure the 
fleece for the manufacture of dress goods or fine cloths. Kemp 
lessens the value of the wool nearly or quite one-half, and should 
make a breeding animal worth no more than its weight as mutton. 
On some heavily wrinkled Merino sheep, these kempy hairs may 
be seen on the edges of the wrinkles, and on the back of the head, 
but nowhere else. But it is even then a fatal objection to such 
sheep as breeders, for this is kemp, and maj'^ appear in all the pro- 
duce of such sheep, and there can be no certainty but some of the 
produce may be badly affected. 

Break in wool renders the fleece absolutely worthless for any 
combing purpose, and however fine the staple, or otherwise good 
in quality, it can only then be manufactured into a class of goods 
for which inferior wool is used. It is exactly what its name im- 
plies. When a brcachy staple is taken and stretched, it parts with 



154 THE shepherd's MAis^UAL. 

great ease at the middle or some portion of its length. There 
is a weak spot, and if the fiber is examined with a microscope, it 
will be found very much attenuated at that spot, and of a dull, 
dead appearance. From what has been already said about the 
structure and growth of wool, it will be easily understood that 
when by bad management, neglect, starvation, overfeeding, irreg- 
ularity in feeding, want of water, or any other evil which affects 
the condition or health of the sheep, the growth of the wool is 
temporarily stopped, even for a day, this suspension of growth 
must inevitably be marked by a weakness in the fiber, which can 
never be remedied. As the wool grows, this weak spot is carried 
forward, and if the evil is soon removed and the sheep recovers 
quickly, it is still there and there it remains. No defect is so fre- 
quent as this ; to avoid it, the flock must be kept with perfect 
regularity, and must receive no check for however short a time it 
may be. This involves the most skillful and careful management, 
which is unfortunately too rare. Regular poor feed may make an 
inferior staple, but one worth more than a breachy staple, which 
may result from one single neglect in the course of a season. Want 
of water causes more break in wool then any other evil to which 
sheep are subjected by careless owners or ignorant shepherds. 

Uniformity in the fleece covers many minor defects, and to de- 
termine the evenness or uniformity of the fleece, the shoulder is 
first examined. Here the finest and best wool should be found. 
Taking this as the standard, the wool from the ribs, thigli, 
rump, and breech, is compared with it ; the nearer the latter ap- 
proaches this in quality, the better. If it is all equal in fineness, 
the fleece will be " e'sen " in regard to fineness. If the wool on all 
the parts mentioned is reasonably regular in length, and near to 
the standard in this respect, the fleece is " even^' as regards length 
of staple. The density is then tested. The hand is closed upon a 
portion of the rump and on the loin, and if the fleece is found to 
be as dense and elastic or springy on those parts as it is at the 
shoulder, the fleece is " even " as regards density. A perfect fleece 
wfll be found of nearly equal fineness from the shoulder to the 
thigh; of nearly equal length at the shoulder, rib, thigh, and back; 
of equal density on the shoulder and across the loins, and free 
from any of the defects before mentioned. 

Most of the points here indicated, both as regards defects and 
good qualities, refer to other wools as well as to that of the Meri- 
no; those points which depend on the peculiar character of 
Merino wool and its excessive yolkiness will be readily understood 
as necessarily applying to that alone, and those which depend on 



WASHING WOOL. 155 

the organic structure of wool and the condition of tlie sheep, to 
all sorts of wool alike. 

Wool in its natural condition contains many impurities, dirt of 
all kinds, sand, dung, and the usual secretions of the skin, and be- 
fore it can become fitted for the uses of the manufacturer, it must 
be freed from these impurities. The wool-buyer, who generally 
comes between the farmer and the manufacturer, does not demand 
that the wool should be thoroughly cleansei], but only freed from 
its grosser impurities. No washing that the farmer could give 
his fleeces would be sufficient for the purpose of the manufacturer, 
who scours the wool in hot soapsuds before he can cleanse it suffi- 
ciently. But nevertheless, the buyer prefers the fleeces to be 
partly cleansed, and this partial cleansing is what is generally 
known as " brook washing." 

Washing the Wool on the sheep's back is the usual practice. 
There are several methods of doing this. Where a brook or river 
can be used for the purpose, all that is needed is to choose a place 
where the water is waist deep, and the bottom is gravelly. A 
muddy or sandy bottom is to be avoided, as it will be impossible 
to prevent some of the bottom from being stirred up and mingling 
with the fleece. Cases have been known in which such a bottom 
has been chosen for this purpose with the special object of adding 
to the weight of the fleece by the admixture of sand. It is hardly 
necessary to say that this mode of cheating can never be profita- 
ble ; if one lot of fleeces thus adulterated be palmed ofi* upon the 
buyer, his remedy may be a severe one, and at the best the cheat 
will not be forgotten. Generally, however, buyers are not to be 
imposed upon, but look sharply enough after then* own interests 
to discover all attempts at dishonesty, and to make the perpetrator 
pay soundly for his error. In washing and making up wool, the 
most thorough honesty will be found to pay well in the long run, 
and a reputation for fair dealing will often be found to have a 
direct money value, especially when the market happens to be 
against the seller. 

Soft water is to be preferred for washing wool. Hard water 
leaves the wool harsh and dry to the hand, and detracts from its 
appearance in the market. Soft water leaves the wool soft and 
mellow, and it more rapidly recovers its tone and elasticity when 
washed in water free from lime. The ground having been chosen, 
the sheep should be closely penned upon the bank of the stream ; 
the side of the pen next the stream should be narrow, with a pas- 
sage-way leading to the water. A plank platform, projecting over 
the bank, from which the sheep can be plunged directly into the 



I-' /-> 
00 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



water, is very convenient. The washers enter the stream and re- 
ceive the sheep from the hands of the drivers, plunging them 
bodily beneath the surface, two or three times. In catching the 
sheep and handling them in the water, the assistants should avoid 
pulling the wool. If a sheep is hauled around by the wool, the 
skin is bruised, and the wool is injured and weakened at the 
bruised spots. To catch a sheep it should be seized with the right 
hand by the hind leg above the hock, firmly with the whole hand, 
yet without unnecessary violence. The pressure upon the sinew 
above the hock joint paralyses the leg for a 
moment, and the sheep will rarely struggle. 
The left hand is then slipped around the 
breast, and the shepherd has perfect control 
of the heaviest sheep, without pulling in the 
least upon the wool. A crook, fig. 54, is a 
convenient implement with which to catch 
wild or unruly sheep. It is quietly passed 
in front of the leg, which is seized and held 
while the shepherd secures the sheep in the 
way described. After the sheep is thorough- 
ly soaked, the animal's head is held above 
water, while the fleece is shaken and squeezed, 
so as to free it from dirt. As many as pos- 
sible of the tags and matted locks around 
the breech should be opened and cleansed. 
When this has been done, the sheep is 
passed to another washer, who finishes the 
washing, and directs the sheep to the bank, squeezing the water 
from its fleece as it emerges from the stream. A clean, grassy 
bank should be chosen. Some long wool sheep, with heavy fleeces, 
which hold a great quantity of water, may need some help to get 
upon their feet as they reach the bank. Ewes that have not 
lambed should be handled carefully in the washing, although it is 
rarely, in well managed flocks, that ewes are allowed to be in lamb 
at this time. 

This method of washing is often very disagreeable and injurious 
to those who practice it. Where ague is prevalent, or where 
rheumatism is feared, it is better to choose some other plan. A 
rough dam may be made in a small stream, and a spout placed in 
the dam, beneath which the sheep may be washed. A sparred 
roadway may be laid across the stream, t!i rough which the water 
will escape. By wearing rubber thigh boots, and a rubber apron, 
the washers may be kept dry, and avoid the danger of long con- 




Fig. 54. —CROOK. 



WASHTKG THE SHEEP. 



157 



tinued exposure to cliilly water. In fig. 55 is an illustration of 
this method of washing. For a large flock, the spent may be 
made to extend across the whole dam, so that several sheep may 
be washed at the same time, each sheep being passed from hand 



vNXf^' 




Fig. 55. — ABBANQEMENT FOB WASHING SHEEP. 

to hand, until finished by the last one. With sufficient help, one 
sheep per minute may easily be washed by this method. After 
the sheep are washed, they should be kept in a clean field, and in 
a clean yard at night, for the week at least before shearing, to per- 



158 THE shephekd's manual. 

mit the fleece to dry and to regain suflacient yolk to recover a soft 
and mellow handling. 

Tagging and Teimming the Feet. — If the sheep are very- 
dirty, and have not been kept trimmed about the tail, it is advisa- 
ble that they should be tagged before they are washed. The 
coarse soiled tag-locks about the hinder parts, and the belly of the 
rams and wethers, may be clipped off in the spring and thrown 
into a basket or barrel to be soaked and washed by themselves. 
The same time will be the most convenient to trim the feet, which 
is a more necessary thing to do than is generally supposed. The 
toes of old sheep, upon soft pastures, will grow long and turn up, 
and cause lameness, or the soles and edges of the hoof will become 
ragged and worn, the horn turning under at the edges. In this 
condition the feet gather filth or small stones and gravel, which 
work into the hoof and cause disease. Foot-rot is in many cases 
thus engendered. The feet should then be trimmed at washing 
time, if not oftener. A sharp knife may be used to pare the ragged 
edges of the hoof and the sole, and toe nippers to shorten the toes. 
A pair of common wire-workers' cutting nippers may be used for 
the latter purpose. The edge of the nippers should be filed sharp, 
with the bevel on the inside, and brought to a smooth edge with 
a piece of oil-stone. 

iSHEAKiNG. — Shccp should not be shorn until the weather has 
become warm and settled. May is the usual time for shearing in 
the northern states. The tools of the shearer are a pair of shears, 
and if desired, a shearing-bench upon which sheep may be placed 
to avoid the necessity of his stooping so much as is required when 
the sheep are laid upon the floor. The common shears with a 
thumb piece upon one side, and an easy spring no stronger than 
will be sufficient to make the shears open freely when released 
from pressure, is the best tool for the shearer. Several new and 
patented shears have been introduced, which the inventors claim 
may be used even by inexperienced persons without danger of 
cutting the sheep's skin. A trial of these shears does not support 
this claim, and the common shears are not yet superseded by any 
of these so-called improvements. The shears should be brought 
to a fine, sharp edge upon a fine oil-stone. The bevel of the cut- 
ting edge should be about 35 degrees, or somewhat more than that 
of a common pair of scissors, and less than that of a plane iron. 

The floor of the shearing room should be kept perfectly free 
from straw, chaff, or litter, and if a boy is kept constantly at work 
with a broom in his hand removing dirt, tags, and rubbish, his 



SHEARING. 159 

time will be well employed. The shearer has better control over 
the sheep when en the floor than on the bench, and the handling 
is not the same under both circumstances. In shearing on a bench 
the shearer catches the sheep b}^ the left hind leg, backs it towards 
the bench, and rolls it over upon it. He then sets the sheep on its 
rump, and standing with his left foot upon the bench, lays the 
sheep's neck across his left knee, with its right side against his 
body. The two forelegs are then taken under the left arm, and 
the fleece is opened up and down along the center of the belly by 
small short clips with the shears. The left side of the belly and 
brisket are then sheared. The tags are clipped from the inside of 
the hmd legs and about the breech, and thrown upon the floor. 
They should be swept up at once and gathered into a basket, and 
by no means allowed to mingle with the fleece wool. The breech 
is then shorn as far as can be reached. The wool from the point 
of the shoulder is then clii)ped as far as the but of the ear. The 
wool is shorn around the carcass and neck to the foretop, pro- 
ceeding down the side, taking the foreleg and going as far over 
the back as possible, which will be two or three inches past the 
back bone. When the joint of the thigh, (the stifle), is reached, 
the shears are inserted at the inside of the hock and the wool shorn 
around the leg back to the thigh joint. The wool over the rump 
is then shorn past the tail. The sheep is now completely shorn 
on one side, and two or three inches over on the otber side, along 
the back from neck to tail. It is then taken by the left hind 
leg, and swung around with the back to the shearer, leaving 
some wool beneath the left hip, which will ease the position of the 
animal, and keep it more quiet. The wool is then shorn from the 
head and neck down the right side, taking the legs and brisket on 
the way. The fleece is now separated. The job is completed 
by clipping the tags and loose locks from the legs. 

To shear on the floor, the sheep is set upon its rump, with the 
head thrown back beneath the left arm of the shearer, and its 
back toward him. The wool is then opened at the neck, and 
clipped downwards in regular lines on the right side from belly to 
back, and over the spine as far as possible on the other side in 
much the same manner as has already been described. The sheep 
is then laid on its shorn side, and the shearer, kneeling on the left 
knee, and straddling the sheep, with the left foot laid over the 
sheep's neck, removes the fleece from the left side, and finishes 
by removing tag locks from the legs and scrotum. In bad shear- 
ing, the greatest injury to the fleece takes place on the back, and is 
caused by the operator not raising his hand, so as to keep the 



ICO THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

points of the shears close down to the skin. This is known 
as " cutting through ; " it takes place when the sheep is being 
shorn on one side; and, in shearing over the back, the points of 
the shears cut nearly or quite through the fleece, from the inside 
to the out ; then, wlien the animal is being shorn on the other, or 
" turning out" side, the shears are again pointed upwards, and the 
cuts on the first and last side overlap each other, causing the fleece 
to part in two halves all along the back. No good shearer makes 
second cuts ; the fact that wool has been left by the first cut 
proves that the shears have not been held properly ; and the wool 
removed by a second cut being perfectly useless, entails a severe 
loss on the maiuifacturcr, and greatly low^ers the repute of the 
brand in the markets. Cutting through, and a habit of continually 
making second cuts, are the most objcct'onable characteristics of 
the unskillful shearer. A sheep may be shorn so close as to satisfy 
the most exacting emplo3^cr, and yet it may be shorn very badly ; 
and the only conclusive test of good shearing, or the reverse, is to 
be found not on the outside of the animal, but on the inside of the 
fleece. 

When the sheep's skin has been unavoidably cut in shearing, 
each cut should be smeared with tar, which will prevent flesh flies 
from depositing their eggs in the wound, and probably avoid after 
trouble. 

It is said to be a fact that newly shorn rams are incapable of 
breeding until their fleeces have recovered considerable growth. 
Some evidence in support of this assertion is given in a pamphlet 
published in Australia, in which the author, Mr. J. R. Graham, the 
superintendent of an extensive sheep " station " on the Murray 
River, states that in a flock of 4,000 ewes and 100 rams newly 
shorn, he had but 1G5 lambs, and on another occasion a flock of 
100 ewes, wliich w^ere drafted with 4 rams, newly shorn, produced 
only 9 lambs. On another station when the ewes were coupled 
with newly shorn rams, there were not 5 per cent of lambs. This, 
if a fact, is more curious than important in this country, where, 
except in California, sheep are not shorn near the breeding season. 
If wool were not shorn, it would be shed annually, or its growth 
would be rendered uneven, and its fiber weakened at the season 
when the coat of an animal covered with hair is usually shed. A 
fleece that is sufierod to grow for two seasons, shows very dis- 
tinctly the division between the growth of each year. This, how- 
ever, occurs only in those countries where the winter and summer 
climates differ considerably, and where the transition from one to 
the other is sudden. Where the climate is nearly even throughout 



TYING FLEECES. 



101 



the year, as ir California or Australia, the fleece will continue to 
grow on, witiiout cliaiij.^(;. At least tliis is the case with tlic Meri- 
no, whose fleece has l)een known to grow to a length of 22 inches 
in a continuous period of six years in Australia. In California a 
fleece was shorn in 1874, which weighed 52 pounds; this was 
doubtless tiie result of two or three years' growth. The retention 
of the fleece for an indefinite period is a peculiarity of the Merino, 
which is not known to app(;rtain to any other variety of sheep. 

Packing the Fleece. — The manner in which the fleeces are 
made up has no little influence upon the price at which the wool 
Vrill sell. Wool buyers prefer to have the fleece loose, liglit to 




Fig. 56.— TA.BLE FOE TYING WOOL. 

handle, and elastic ; and tied up so that it can be easily opened if 
need be. The method of packing in Ohio and Western Pennsyl- 
vania, is to lay the fleece upon a table, turn in the head and tail, 
tlien the flanks, and roll it up in a neat roll, tying it with a string 
at each end. Tliis method is shown in figure 06. Sometimes the 
fleece is tied with one more string across the ends, but this is 
rarely necessary, excepting wlien the wool is very short. A fleece 
thus tied is light, easily handled, sIjows the quality of the wool, 
and can be felt all through. The efTect of the manner of putting 
up the fleece is seen in the following quotations taken from the 
wool market report of Coales Bros., PJiiladelphia, of July Isl, 1875. 



162 



THE shepherd's ma:n^ual. 



Ohio, Pennsylvania, and W. Va. fleece 50e.@53c. 

New York, Michigan, and Wisconsin fleece, XX.,46c.(&48c. 
Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri fleece, XX 45c.@47c. 

The difference of 4 to 5 cents per pound is the value of the extra 
care in making up the fleeces. The difference is even greater than 
this, for New York, Michigan, andWisconsin wools of better qual- 
ity than some Ohio 
wools, are bought 
at the regular rates 
quoted, simply be- 
cause the Ohio 
fleeces come to 
market in better 
shape. This is no 
unreasonable dis- 
tinction, as will be 
seen when the man- 
ner of sorting wool 
is explained fur- 
ther on. 

There are various 
kinds of wool tables 
for packing the 
fleece other than 
that shown in figure 
56. One in common 
use in New York is thus described in the American Agriculturist 
of May, 1872, with the accompanying^engravings, to which the 
letters refer. It is made of three boards one inch thick, and 
twelve inches wide. 

r^'^^^r;^3S^ _^ 



The center one, fig. 
57, is divided at 
equal distances at 
a, a, and connected 
with hinges open- 
ing u p wards. The ^ 
two outside boards 
are joined to the ^ 
center square by 
hinges at b, 5, 5, 5, 
also opening upwards, 
away the wood underneath so that they may lie flush with the 
boards when pressed down. At d, d, d, d, make a cut one inch deep 




Fig. 57.— PLAN OP WOOL TABLE. 




Fig. 58. — WOOL TABLE CLOSED. 

At c, c, c, c, screw on the springs, cutting 



PACKING WOOL. 



163 



with a thin saw, to hold the ends of the strings. A hook is made, 
{e, fig. 58), of hard wood, one inch thick and fourteen inches be- 
tween the jaws, and the box is done. 

To use it, first fix the strings from the cuts d, d, d, d, in the di- 
rection of the dotted lines on fig. 58. Lay the fleece with the 

clipped side down- 
wards on the 
boards, bring up 
the sides, which 
secure by placing 
across them the 
hook, as in fig. 58 ; 
then close the ends, 
which the springs 
will keep in their 
places ; tie the ends 
of each string tight- 
^__5~ ly over the wool; 

'■x.^-^y^y^y/xyyxy ^^^ remove the 
'^^^^^^^^' hook, and the box 
will fall back, leav- 
ing the fleece tight- 
ly packed and tied. 
Nothing should 
be tied up in the 
fleece, nor should 
coarse twine nor too 
much twine be used. 
All tags and waste 
wool should be 
scrupulously kept 
out of the fleece, as 
it should not only 
look good, but 
should he good. 
This observing of 
little thin ITS is one 




Fig. 59.— PACKING WOOL. 



of the ways in which wool growing is made a profitable business. 
Tag locks and dirty wool should be washed in a tub with soft soap 
and cold water and sold by itself. The soft soap tends to give tub- 
washed wool a mellow handling free from harshness. 

When the grower ships his wool to a distant market, he necessa- 
rily packs the fleeces in bales. The bale should be solidly packed 



164 THE shepherd's manual. 

both for economy in freight, which in light bulky articles, is 
charged according to bulk and not by weight, and for the better 
condition of the fleeces on their arrival at their destination. A 
convenient method of baling the fleeces, is to hang the sack from 
a trap-door in the wool loft, as shown in figure 59. The fleeces are 
handed or thrown to the packer, who places them in the sack, 
pressing them down close with his bare feet, and, as he reaches the 
top, with his Imees ; a handful of tags is put in each corner of the 
sack and tied tightly to make a handle by which the package can 
be hauled about in its transportation to market. When filled, the 
bale should be plainly marked with the exact weight, tare, and 
net weight, upon one of its sides. 

Sorting. — When the wool reaches the dealer, it undergoes a 
process of sorting. The same fleece contains wool of various de- 
grees of fineness, and it must be prepared for the manufacturer, 
who purchases only exactly what he nesds for his particular use. 
The fleece is unrolled, and the sorter selects the fine locks from 
the coarse ones ; the neck, shoulder, and side wool from the thigh, 
and haunch wool ; and this from the belly and breech wool. Each 
fleece is sorted into from six to ten diflferent qualities, which are 
selected by the sorter with surprising quickness and certainty. A 
well rolled fleece is much more quickly handled than one made up 
disorderly, and the saving of the time of a highly paid workman, 
is of itself sufficient to enhance the value of a well packed fleece 
over that of an opposite character several cents a pound. 

The final disposition of the wool, after it has reached the manu- 
facturer, is not within the limits of this book, although the vari- 
ous processes of scouring, dyeing, oiling, plucking, carding, comb- 
ing, breaking, drawing, roving, spinning, reeling, and weaving, 
are all of the greatest interest to the wool growei-, as relating very 
intimately to his share of the general industry, and showing how 
far the best management of his flock goes to ease the labors, and 
facilitate the operations, of the numerous artisans concerned in all 
these various branches of the manufacture, and consequently 
adding to the value of his raw product. The perfection of the 
various processes cannot be better illustrated than by the facts 
that in only ordinary spinning, a pound of wool is made to extend 
three-fourths of a mile ; in superfine spinning, it stretches to a dis- 
tance of 22 miles; and that the very finest woolen yarn hitherto 
spun, will reach a distance of 95 miles for every pound. Fifteen 
hundred fibers of the finest wool laid side by side will cover only 
one inch of space, and 2,225,000 of them placed compactly to- 
gether, will make a bundle only one inch square. How much evil 



WOOL PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD. 



165 



then may the ignorance or carelessness of the shepherd or the 
wool-grower, work to the possible benefit to the world through 
this industry, by reducing the value of a staple upon which so 
much of the labor of mankind is expended. 

The wool production of the whole world is estimated by Mr. H. 
C. Carey, at 1,800,000,000 lbs. This estimate is rendered proba- 
ble by comparison with the estimates of the production of those 
countries of which we have more or less accurate knowledge 
through oflQcial reports. An estimate of the number of sheep and 
pounds of wool produced in the following countries in 1866, 
made by the London Statistical Society, and published in their 
journal, here reproduced. To this is added in the last column 
the number of sheep mentioned as existing in those countries 
in the official reports of their governments published since that 
date: 

TABLE OP SHEEP AND WOOL PEODUCTIONS OF THE FOLLOWING 
COUNTRIES IN 1866. 



COUNTRIES. 


Millions 

Sheep and 

Lambs. 


Millions 
lbs. Wool 
Pi'odvced. 


Tears. 


Mllions 

Sheep and 

Lambs. 


Great Britain 


34.1 

37.4 

1.7 

8.4 

10.0 

45.3 

1.6 

1.7 

1.9 

25.3 

1.0 

0.6 

30.4 

22.1 

11.0 

16.6 

0.4 

8.5 

32.8 


160.0 

152.2 

6.1 

28.8 

38.0 

90.8 

6.1 

6 4 

7.0 

52.1 

6.2 

3.5 

91.2 

74.4 

24.8 

31.1 

1.3 

7.6 

117.6 


1873 
1874 
1874 
1874 
1865 
1863 
1871 
1865 
1871 

1871 
1866 
1872 
1865 
1867 
1871 
1867 
1873 
1874 
1872 
1872 
1863 
1867 
1872 


29.4 


Australia 


45.0 


Tasmania 

New Zealand 


1.5 
11.6 


Cape of Good Hope 


9.8 


Russia 


45.1 


Sweden 


1.6 


Norway 


1.7 


Denmark 


1.8 


Germany 




Holland 


.8 


Belgium 


.5 


France 


24.0 


Spain 


22.0 


Italy 


11.0 


Austria, including Hungary 

Switzerland 


20.0 
0.4 


Greece 


2.5 


United States 


*34.0 


Prussia 


1.5 


Wurtemberg 


.5 


Bavaria 

Saxony 


2.0 
.3 


Portugal 


2.4 


Total 


289.0 


964.6 







* Lambs not included. 



It will be noticed that this list is unfortunately very knperfect, 
and that those countries only are mentioned whose product enters 
into commerce, and which is published in government reports, and 
is therefore more easily figured up by the statistician than that of 
such countries as the states of Northern Africa, Asia, and South 



166 



THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 



America. The average weight of fleece, the relative value of the 
wool per pound (in American dollars and cents), and the yearly 
income from each sheep, in wool, is given in the following table : 

TABLE OF THE PRODUCE AND PRICE OF WOOL AND YEA.RLY 
VALUE OF THE FLEECE IN THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES IN 1866. 



COTJNTEIES. 



Great Britain 

Australia 

Tasmania 

New Zealand 

Cape of Good Hope. 

Russia 

Sweden , 

Norway 

Denmark 

Germany 

Holland 

Belgium 

France 

Spain 

Italy 

Austria 

Switzerland 

Greece 

United States 



General average. 



Poimds 


Price per 


Wool 


pound of 


per SJieep. 


wool. 


4.7 


.25 


4.1 


.37 


3.5 


.38 


3.4 


.27 


3.2 


.33 


2.0 


.21 


3.7 


.19 


3.7 


.17 


3.7 


.23 


2.1 


.41 


6.0 


.19 


6.0 


.18 


3.0 


.18 


3.5 


.41 


2.2 


.21 


1.9 


.38 


3.0 


.18 


3.0 


.14 


5.4 


.40 


3.6 


.26 



Annual 

Revenue 

per sheep. 



1.17 

1.51 

1.33 

.90 

1.05 

.42 

.68 

.62 

.85 

.85 

1.14 

1.08 

.54 

1.45 

.46 

.72 

.54 

.42 

2.16 



.94 



The most striking item in the above comparison is the greatly 
larger annual revenue derived from each sheep in America than 
elsewhere. When we take into account along with this, the lower 
price of our lands, the American shepherd will be seen to have a 
far more profitable business than that of any other sheep owner in 
the world. Much of this advantage is doubtless due to the higher 
prices received by the wool-grower through the operation of the 
protective duties levied upon foreign wool. Some of it is cer- 
tainly due to the greater weight of the fleece consequent upon the 
improvement which has been made in our sheep. With two ex- 
ceptions the average weight of American fleeces is the highest in 
the list. But by far the greater advantage exists in the higher 
comparative price of wool, which is only exceeded very slightly in 
two instances, those of Spain and Germany, and in these countries 
the bulk of the wool is of the finer sorts which bear a high market 
value. The benefit accruing to wool-growers by the present tariff 
is unmistakable, and although this is not the place to discuss the 
question, it continuance would certainly seem to be very desirable. 

The following table gives the number of sheep, (omitting lambs), 
enumerated in the decennial census reports of the United States 
for the years named : 



KUMBER OF SHEEP IIT THE UNITED STATES. 16? 



STATES AND TERRITOKIES. 



Alabama 

Arizooa 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut .'. 

Dakota 

Delaware 

District of Coumbia. 

Florida , 

Georgia 

Idaho .*...' 

Illinois .V. 

Indiana ..', 

Iowa 

Kansas * 

Kentucky '. 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland ,.' 

Massaclmsetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri , 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina .'. . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas.. 

Utah 

Vermont 



Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Total 28,477,951 



1870. 

Number. 

241,934 
803 
161,077 
2,768,187 
120,9:^8 
83,884 
1,901 
23,714 
604 
26.599 
419,465 
1,021 
1,568,286 
1,612,680 
855,493 
109,088 
936,765 
118,602 
434,666 
129,697 
73,560 
1,985,906 
132,343 
232,732 
1,352,001 
2,024 
22,725 
11,018 
248,760 
120,067 
619,438 
2,181,578 
463,435 
4,928,635 
318,123 
1,794,391 
23,938 
124,594 
826,783 
714,351 
59,672 
580,347 
370,145 
43,063 
552,327 
1,069,282 
6,409 



1860. 



Number. 



1850. 
Number. 



370,156 

202.753 
1,088,002 

117,107 

193 

18,857 

40 

30,158 

512,618 

769,135 

991,175 

259,041 

17,569 

938,990 

181,253 

452,472 

155; 765 

114,829 

1,271,743 

13,044 

352,632 

937,445 

2,355 

376 

310,534 

135,228 

830,116 

2,617,855 

546,749 

3,546,767 

86,052 

1,681.540 

32,624 

233,509 

773,317 

753,363 

37,332 

752.201 

1,043,269 

10,157 

included with 

332,954 



22,471,275 



371,880 

91,256 

17,574 

174,181 

27,503 

150 

23,311 

560,435 

894,043 

1,122,493 

149,960 

1,102,091 
110,833 
451,577 
177,902 
180,651 
746,435 
80 
304,929 
762,511 



384,756 

160,488 
377.271 

3,453,241 
595.249 

3,942,929 
15.382 

1,822,S57 

41,296 

285,551 

811.591 

100,530 

3,262 

1,014.122 

1,310,004 

Virginia. 
124,896 



21,723,220 



The increase since the last census, (1870), in the western states 
and territories, is very great. For instance, the estimated clip of 
wool m California, as reported by Messrs. E. Grisar & Co., of San 
Francisco, for the three decennial periods named, and for 1875, 
was as follows : 

JSi 175,000 lbs. 

iSSX 3,055,835 " 

rtL% 30,072,660 " 

^®'^ 43,533,333 <♦ 



168 THE shepherd's manual. 

While some of this very great increase will result from the rapid 
improvement in the character of the sheep, yet there is neverthe- 
less reason to suppose that the number of sheep in California now 
reaches at least 5,000,000, which is nearly double the number of 
1870. 

In Colorado, persons engaged in the sheep industry, estimate 
the flocks to amount to about one million ; and in the neigh- 
boring territories of Dakota, Wyoming, New Mexico, and Arizo- 
na, this industry has become so wonderfully developed during the 
past five years, that a reasonable estimate would give the whole 
present number of sheep pasturing upon those plains as at least 
2,000,000, where in 1870 there were little more than 120,000. The 
profitable character of the business of rearing sheep upon these 
magnificent and costless pastures, is tending to still further attract 
the attention of stock men and capitalists, who are establishing 
flocks in almost every available portion of these territories. A 
business in which capital used with care and skill returns a profit 
of 75 per cent, cannot fail to become developed with rapidity in 
so favorable a locality. What the limit of the productive capacity 
of these broad pastures may be, it would be hazardous to attempt 
to prognosticate. 



CHAPTEK VIL 

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP; ITS DISEASES 
AND THEIR REMEDIES. 

GENERAL VIEW OP ITS ANATOMY. 

The structure of the sheep more nearly resembles that of the 
ox than any other of the domestic animals. It possesses a less 
degree of nervous energy than the horse, ox, or pig, but it is capa- 
ble of enduring greater extremes of heat and cold with less incon- 
venience, and possesses a more vigorous digestion than those ani- 
mals. The most of its nervous energy is expended on its diges- 
tive and assimilative functions, and the least proportion upon its 
sensitive and locomotive organs. None of our domestic animals 
so completely digests coarse fodder, or so thoroughly and profita- 
bly turns the most nutritious food into flesh and fat as the sheep. 



THE BONES. 



1G9 



In this respect it is the most valuable and profitable feeder the 
farmer can make use of ; at the same time no other animal is so 
feeble and defenseless, nor so soon succumbs to disease of a debil- 
itating or exhausting character. Its circulatory system being 
weak, it is on the other hand comparatively free from inflamma- 
tory diseases, to which the horse and ox are especially subject. 

This peculiarity of the character of the sheep may be inferred 
from a view of its skeleton, fig. CO, in which the small space occu- 




Fig. 60. — SKELETON OF THE SHEEP. 

pied by the heart and lungs, is very marked in comparison with 
the large abdominal space which gives ample room for the diges- 
tive organs. The bones of the sheep number 336, including 32 
teeth. These bones are disposed as follows : 

Vertebral column 43 

Head, (without teeth) 28 

Teeth, (in the adult) 32 

Thorax or chest 27 

Shoulders 2 

Arms and forearms 6 

Fore feet, (20 in each) 40 

Pelvis 2 

Thighs and legs 8 

Hind feet, (19 in each) 38 

22C 

The structure of the head of the sheep is such as to secure great 
strength. In homed sheep, the upper portion of the skull is more 
strongly built than in tlie polled or hornless ones. This structure 
is necessary to protect the brain from the shocks consequent on 
the mode of warfare of the rams, which are pugnacious animals, 
8 



170 



THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 



and especially of those -whicli are armed with heavy horns. The 
skull consists of two tables or plates, half an inch or more apart, 
the outer thick and tough, the inner hard and brittle. These 
plates are connected by ridges of bone, which divide the space 
between them into compartments called sinuses. This structure 
gives the skull exceeding strength and ability to resist blows and 
punctures by sharp substances. The bones of the head are joined 
together by sutures or dove-tails, which are also conducive to ex- 
treme strength. In this manner the brain is protected, and the 
horns are provided with a solid and elastic foundation. The form 
of the head is shown in figure 61, in which 1 is the occipital bone ; 
2, parietal bone ; 3, core of right frontal 
bone; 4, the left core covered by its horn ; 
5, superciliary foramen ; 5\ channej des- 
cending from it ; 6, lachrymal bones ; 7, 
zygoma ; 8, nasal bones ; 9, supermaxili- 
ary bones ; 10, premaxiliary bones ; 10\ 
its internal process; 11, incisive opening. 
The cavity which contains the brain is 
less than a third the size of the rest of the 
skull, the larger portion being devoted to 
the functions of eating and smelling. 
The space devoted to mastication is large, 
and the space occupied by the nostrils, 
which are the breathing passages, rela- 
tively small. Most of the bones of the 
face are hollow, and are divided into sev- 
eral sinuses and cells by which the head is rendered light and 
strong. The sinuses and cells are lined with membranes which 
secrete mucus, and are therefore called mucous membranes. The 
inner cavity of the skull is lined with several membranes which 
still further add to its strength, and to the security of the brain. 
The teeth of the sheep consist of incisors or cutters, and molars or 
grinders. There are 8 of the former, all being upon the lower jaw, 
and 24 of the latter. Upon the upper jaw, in place of cutting 
teeth, the sheep has, in common with most of the ruminants, a 
cartilaginous plate or cushion, upon which the teeth of the lower 
jaw impinge when the mouth is closed. The sheep has no canine 
teeth or tusks. There is a long space of the jaws on each side be- 
tween tlie incisors and molars, which is destitute of teeth. The 
milk teeth, or deciduous or temporary teeth of the sheep, are 
twenty in number; the eight incisors on the lower jaw, and three 
molar teeth on each side of both jaws or twelve in all. The two 




Fig. 61.— BONES OP A 

kam's head. 



THE TEETH. 171 

central front teeth appear either before or soon after birth, and in 
about three weeks after birth, the whole of the twenty temporary- 
teeth appear. The first change in the teeth occurs at the age of 
three months, when the lamb cuts a permanent molar tooth. The 
next change also occurs at the back of the mouth, when at nine 
months old, another, the second permanent molar tooth appears. 
At one year old the lamb has but eight permanent teeth, or two at 
the back of each side of each jaw. The age of fourteen months is 
marked by the appearance of two permanent incisor teeth at the 
center of the front of the jaw. In judging of the age of a sheep, 
the condition of the molars may be studied with advantage. If a 
sheep is certified to be not exceeding one year old, and the fifth 
molar, (the second permanent one, and the last one on each jaw), is 
found to be sharp on the edges and but slightly worn, the age may 
be regarded to be properly stated, even though the central pair of 
front teeth have already appeared. But if these teeth are well up 
and the last molar is worn and smooth, and there is a space be- 
tween this tooth and the angle of the jaw, the sheep is certainly 
over a year old. The sixth molar tooth is in its place at the age 
of eighteen months, and this is the only test of this age of the 
sheep. The second pair of front teeth, one on each side of the 
first pair, appear at twenty-one months of age, and at two years 
are fully grown and stand well up from the gum and level with 
the first pair. After the sixth molar is cut, the three forward and 
temporary molars are replaced by permanent teeth, which are 
fully grown at the age of twenty-Seven months. At two years 
and a half the third pair of front teeth have become fully grown, 
although in some forward sheep of the quickly maturing breeds, 
these teeth may appear at two years of age. Generally they indi- 
cate an age of two years and a half. At the age of three years, in 
the Cotswolds and other forward breeds, the fourth and last pair 
of front teeth appear ; but in other breeds they are not present 
until three and a quarter or three and a half years. The sheep is 
then what is known as " full mouthed." The following table of 
the periods of dentition will be found useful in determining the 
age of a sheep : 

At one month, 8 temporary front teeth and three temporary molars on 
each side of each jaw. 
At three months, a permanent molar is added to these three. 
At nine months, the second permanent molar appears. 
At fourteen months, two permanent incisors appear, (as a, a, fig. 62). 
At eighteen months, the third permanent molar appears. 
At twenty-one months, there are four permanent incisors, ( a^a, fig. 63). 



172 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



At twenty-seven months, the temporary molars are changed, and per- 
manent ones appear. 

At thirty months, there are six permanent incisors, {a, a, fig. 64). 

At thirty-six to forty-two months, there are eight permanent inci- 
sors, (a, a, fig. 65). 

It has been decided in an English court of law, that a lamb be- 
comes a sheep when the first pair of permanent incisors have ap- 





Fig. 62. 

peared. When the mouth is full toothed, the sheep is considered 
as mature, or full grown, when the teeth begin to show signs of 
wear, the sheep is *' aged." 

The composition of the bones of the sheep and of the marrow 
contained in their cavities differs in no respect from that of the 
bones and marrow of other domestic animals. Bone consists of 
animal matter and earthy salts ; usually in the following propor- 
tion, viz : phosphate of lime, 55 per cent ; carbonate of lime, 4 per 
cent ; phosphate of magnesia, 3 per cent ; soda, potash, and com- 





Fig. 64. 



Fiff. 65. 



mon salt, (chloride of sodium), 3 per cent, and 35 per cent of gela- 
tine. These proportions differ to some extent with the kind of 
bone, its solidity, and the age and condition of the animal from 
which it is taken. The bones of the skeleton are joined together 
by means of cartilages, or ligaments, which form what are known 
as articulations. Where the bones move one upon another, their 
ends, or the parts brought in contact, are covered with cartilage. 
Every bone is enveloped in a highly sensitive lining or membrane 
called the periosteum. Although the bones seem to be solid and 
insensible matter, chiefly composed of earthy salts, yet they are 
highly sensitive, and are formed of tissue which is penetrated by 



THE STRUCTURE OF BONE. 



173 




66. — THE HAVERSIAN 
CANALS. 



an infinite number of minute canals known as the Haversian canals 
which are from V200 to V2 500th of an inch in diameter. These canals 
are parallel to the length of the bone, and frequently communicate 
together, forming an intricate net-work, which may be seen when 

a section of the bone made lengthwise 
is highly magnified, as shown in figure 
66. In a cross-section of the bone 
these canals appear as at fig. 67, being 
surrounded by concentric layers, a, 
through which radiating tubes, 5, of 
the minutest size, penetrate. 

The periosteum is a highly vascular 
and nervous membrane which covers 
the entire bone, except the cartilagi- 
nous surfaces which move upon each 
other at the joints. It connects the 
outer surface of the bones with the 
tendons, ligaments, and muscles. 

The marrow is a fatty, pulpy sub- 
stance, which fills the central canals 
and the spongy tissue of the bones. It is pink in color, and 
contains merely a trace of fat in young animals, but as age ad- 
vances, it becomes yellow and less solid, and contains 96 per cent 
of fat. The bones are penetrated and lined within and without 
with numerous arteries, veins, and nerves. Some of these arteries 
penetrate the bones by appropriate openings, and divide into 
branches which form a net- 
work that lines the inner 
surface of the bones, and 
another that penetrates the 
substance of the marrow. 
Other arteries penetrate the 
spongy portions of the 
bones, and others form a 
net-work which belongs to 
the periosteum, and which 
enter the substance of the 
bones by means of the 
Haversian canals. Veins accompany these arteries, and are 
very numerous where the spongy tissue is abundant. Nerves are 
abundant in the marrow and the spongy tissue, but few in the 
compact tissue. Portions of the vertebras are remarkable for the 
numerous nerves they contain. By means of the arteries and 



<2-^ 




CROSS-SECTION OF BONE. 



174 THE shepherd's manual. 

veins, the bones receive nutriment and means of growth or repair, 
and by means of the nerves they become sensitive. 

The skeleton or frame work is clothed with flesh or muscular 
tissue. The muscles consist of bundles of fibers which possess the 
power of contraction when excited by sensations communicated 
by the nerves. The muscles are very diversified in shape, some 
being spread out in fan shape, some being thick and bulky, and 
some long and thin. The fibers are intermingled with fat or with 
cellular membrane. It is in the abundance of the cells which con- 
tain the fat, and in the power to assimilate food to supply the fat, 
that a sheep of a good breed or character is distinguished from one 
of a poor or bad character. The abundance of fat cells both within 
and upon the surface of the muscles gives the soft mellow hand- 
ling which distinguishes an excellent mutton sheep. The muscles 
are either directly connected by the ends of their fibers to the peri- 
osteum or covering membrane of the bone, as in the scapula or 
shoulder blade ; or the ends are gathered together closely and in- 
terlaced with the stronger fibers of the tendons or ligaments which 
are attached to the bones. By the contraction of the fibers of the 
muscles and tendons, the movements of the joints are made. In 
the muscular portions of the sheep consists the whole value of the 
carcass to the butcher, and the whole art of the breeder and 
feeder of those heavy-bodied breeds, known as mutton sheep, 
is concentrated in the effort to increase the muscular development 
in those parts of the carcass, as the loins and legs, the meat of 
which is most highly valued. The muscles are enclosed in the 
skin which forms the covering of the animal. The protecting coat 
of the animal grows upon the skin. This is either hair or wool, 
both being of similar construction and composition, differing only 
in form or degree of fineness and texture. 

The brain occupies the cavity of the skull, and is the central seat 
of sensation and intelligence. From it proceeds the spinal marrow, 
which is a continuation of the brain, and which occupies a cavity 
through the center of the spine or backbone, from the head to the 
tail. The brain is largely supplied with blood by means of the 
carotid arteries, and the jugular veins serve to return the blood 
from the brain to the heart and lungs. In the sheep the brain is 
very small as compared with the size of the bodj'-, its average 
weight being but 4J ounces, while that of the dog is 6^ ounces. 
This difference in the development of brain reasonably accounts 
for the superior intelligence of the shepherd dog, one of which 
easily controls and guides the movements of a thousand sheep. 

The nerves proceed from the brain and spinal cord, and peni 



THE VITAL FUNCTIONS. 175 

trate in a net- work of the most astonishing fineness to the remot- 
est portion of the body, every portion of which, however minute, 
being endowed by the nerves with the faculty of sensation. In 
the sheep there are forty pairs of nerves, ten of which proceed 
from the brain, and thirty from the spinal cord. Each of these has 
its plexus, or system of branches and net-work. The nerves con- 
sist of bundles of white filaments or threads. The different senses, 
sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch, are supplied by the nerves, 
which proceed directly from the brain. Another important brain 
nerve is the par vagum, or pneumo-gastric nerve, which proceeds 
to the heart, lungs, stomach, liver, and the bronchial or breathing 
apparatus. It is this nerve which gives the breathing, circulating, 
and digestive organs their power of motion independent of the 
will. Any injury or disease of this nerve affects these vital func- 
tions, and its division or destruction occasions instant death. The 
spinal nerves convey both sensation and motion. The spinal cord 
of the sheep weighs one ounce and three-quarters. 

The vital functions of an animal are respiration^ circulation., and 
digestion or nutrition. By the first the system is supplied with 
oxygen, which is one of the sources of animal heat and is the agent 
by which the blood is purified. By the second, the tissues or 
living structure of the animal are supplied with nutriment and 
relieved from dead and used up matter, and by the last the blood 
is replenished with fresh supplies of nutritive elements. 

Respiration commences at the moment of birth and continues to 
the moment of death. It consists of an inspiration or in-drawing 
and an expiration or out-forcing of air. The motions necessary 
to these alternate actions are made by the diaphragm, a membrane 
which divides the chest from the abdomen. When this membrane 
is relaxed it is convex or rounded towards the chest. When its 
fibers contract, it is straightened or flattened, and of course en- 
larges the cavity of the chest and causes a rush of air to fill the 
enlarged space. This alternate contraction and relaxing of the 
muscles of the diaphragm cause the motion of the chest, which is 
observed in breathing. A corresponding movement is also made 
in the abdomen, as may be noticed in the flanks of hard driven 
animals. The lungs occupy the largest portion of the cavity of 
the chest, and enfold the heart. They are two in number, the 
left and the right ; the left lung is divided into two parts, called 
lobes ; the right is divided into four lobes, of which one is curved 
around the heart. Fig. 68 shows this peculiarity, 1, 1, being the 
right lung ; 2, 2, the left : 3, the trachea or windpipe ; 4, the heart ; 
5, the carotid arteries ; and 6, the vena cava., or great vein which 



176 



THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 



carries the blood which has circulated through the body to the 
heart, from which it is forced to the lungs for purification. The 
lungs are composed of a spongy, highly elastic mass of cells. 
When the cavity of the chest is enlarged by the contraction of the 
diaphragm, this elastic mass swells and fills the cavity. The cells 
enlarge, and vacuums are formed in them to fill which a stream of 
air is immediately directed. The air 3 

rushes through the nostrils into the 
trachea or windpipe, and thence into 
the bronchial tubes, which penetrate 
the mass of the lungs in all direc- 
tions, as the branches and twigs of a 
tree. By these bronchial tubes, air 
is carried into every portion of the 
lungs, where it meets the blood 
brought thither from every extremity 
of the body by means of the vena cava 
through the heart. In this contact 
the blood, loaded with impurities, 
and deprived of the oxygen which 
is needed for the support of the 
body, parts with its load of offensive 
matter, and takes up from the air 
whatever oxygen it requu'es to re- 
store it to a state of purity, and to 
enable it to fulfill the functions of 
circulation once more. The air having performed this office, is 
expelled from the lungs by the relaxing of the muscles of the 
diaphragm, and is expired. The expired air is highly charged 
with carbonic acid and vapor of water, nearly the whole of its 
oxygen having been absorbed by the blood. It is also charged 
with other products of the constant decomposition or waste of the 
tissues of the body, or of unnecessary matters which have entered 
the circulation through the digestive organs. 

Circulation consists in the constant motion of the blood from 
the heart through the arteries to the inner and outer surface of 
the body, and through every tissue of which the body is composed ; 
thence back by the veins to the heart ; thence to the lungs, where 
it is purified and fitted to again serve for the nutrition of the body ; 
it is then sent from the lungs to the heart to start again upon its 
round to the extremities. 

The blood is the most important part in the system of an animal. 
It consists of a white fluid colored red by very small globules, 




Fig. 68. — THE LUNGS EN- 
VELOPING THE HEART. 



THE CIKCULATIOI^ OF THE BLOOD. 



177 




Fig. 69.— DIAGRAM OF THE OIROTJLATION. 



called the blood corpuscles. From the blood the tissues of the 
body derive materials for theh- nutrition, growth, or repair and 
for their secretions. The blood is replenished with new matter 
from the digestive organs, which dissolve and prepare the food 
for this purpose. To carry on circulation, an apparatus is pro- 
vided which consists of the heart, the arteries, the capillaries which 
form the connecting link between the extremities of the smallest 
branches of the arteries and those of the veins; the veins- the ar- 
teries of the lungs ; the lungs with their capillaries, and the'veins of 
the lungs. There is thus a double circulation as it were, which 
may be readily understood by a reference to the diagram, fig. 69, 

in which G D represents 
the left auricle of the 
heart, which forces the 
blood through the arteries 
E, in the direction of the 
arrows to the fine net- 
work of the capillaries; 
then to the veins F, and 
thence to the right auricle 
of the heart, A B. From 
- this it is forced through the right ventricle which opens from the 
right auricle into the pulmonary artery Q, still following the course 
indicated by the arrows, into the net-work of the capillaries of the 
lungs, from which it is conveyed by the pulmonary vein H, into 
the left ventricle, whence it passes to the left auricle, on the same 
course over again. The heart is a mass of very strong muscular 
fiber, having the four cavities just mentioned, and being supplied 
with valves which regulate the flow of the blood. The muscles of 
the heart contract and expand with regularity, performing what 
we usually term its " beats," four times or thereabouts for every 
inspiration of the lungs. In a young sheep the heart beats 80 to 
90 times in a minute ; a full grown one, 70 to 80 times, and in a 
very old one, 55 to 60 times. At each contraction the blood is 
forced through the arteries and their branches to the capillaries. 
These capillaries are exceedingly small, being from V2000 to Vssooth 
part of an inch in diamet(«-, and inosculate or join together again 
and again, forming a net- work of the closest character, so close 
that the finest needle cannot penetrate the skin or membranes any- 
where without wounding one or more of them, and causing an 
escape of blood. While circulatmg in this net-work of capillaries, 
the blood gives up to the tissues amongst which it circulates, the 
materials needed for their growth and increase, and also to sup- 



178 THE shepherd's manual. 

ply th3 waste of matter caused by every mechanical movement of 
the animal; for every contraction of the fibers of the muscles 
causes a decomposition and destruction of some portion of their 
substance. Hence is explained the waste of matter or loss of 
weight caused by excessive exertion or insufficient food. Here 
the blood also absorbs the dead, used up matter created by this de- 
composition and destruction of tissue, and carries it off from the 
system. This it does by means of the skin, the kidneys, and the 
lungs, through which the blood is filtered as it were of matters 
useless to the system by means of these capillaries ; and the excre- 
tions of perspiration both sensible and insensible, that of the urine, 
with some others, are thus thrown oft. In this manner the blood 
becomes depleted of its nutritive properties, and absorbs the wastes 
of the system in its intricate course through these infinitely small 
capillaries. It enters them from the arteri^ a bright red, and 
leaves them a dark, blackish purple fluid. It courses onwards 
through the veins loaded with impurities, to the lungs, which it 
enters still a dark fluid ; here it passes through a second set of 
capillaries much finer than the former, in which it is exposed to 
pure air contained in the cells of the lungs ; the carbonaceous mat- 
ters it contains come in contact with the oxygen of the air, and are 
decomposed, burned in fact, giving forth the heat needed for the 
continuance of life ; when the blood thus rendered pure, leaves 
the lungs a bright red once more, again fitted to fulfill its func- 
tions. Before entering into the lungs, the blood receives a new 
supply of matter from the lymphatic vessels, called lymph, which 
is derived from the digested food. The vessel which conveys the 
lymph or chyle, is called the thoracic duct, and passes upwards 
into the cavity of the chest in close contact with the vertebrae or 
spine. The temperature of the blood of the healthy sheep is 100°. 
The blood is now believed to possess vitality ; while its circulation 
exists it is fluid, and when it is dead it coagulates. The cause of the 
coagulation of the blood is not known, and there is a diflference 
between its coagulation in and out of the body. If a part of the 
body be wounded, the blood which escapes from the divided ves- 
sels, coagulates between the edges of the wound, forms a clot of 
organized material, throws out new vessels, and gradually restores 
the wounded parts. It is this coagulating property which saves 
the life of a wounded animal and directly leads to recoveiy ; if 
the blood remained fluid, the least wound would cause a flow 
which would not stop until the vessels were empty and the animal 
dead. The constituents of the blood are exactly those of flesh. 
Digestion is the process by which food is taken into the body, 



DIGESTION. 179 

masticated, dissolved by the stomach and intestines, and rendered 
fit for absorption by the lacteals and lymphatics, and assimilation 
by the blood. The parts concerned in digestion are the lips, teeth, 
and tongue, the salivary glands, the gullet, the stomacli, the intes- 
tines, the liver, the lacteals, and the thoracic duct which connects 
the digestive process with the direct function of circulation and 
nutrition. The lips are used by the sheep in gathering its food, 
very much as they are used by the horse, and to a much greater ex- 
tent than by the ox. The sheep's lips are thin, and very active in 
their movement. The upper lip is divided by a groove, or fissure, 
80 that each half can be moved independently of the other. The 
sheep possesses no muffle or broad space between the nostrils on 
tlM3 upper lip, which in health secretes a liquid which appears in 
small drops upon its surface, as in the ox. The teeth have been 
already described. Their office is well known. The tongue serves 
to convey the food to the teeth, and from the teeth to the gullet, 
and also the cud from the gullet to the teeth. The salivary glands 
secrete a fluid which moistens the food during mastication, and 
which also possesses some of the character of a solvent, or a pre- 
paratory digestive agent, in being able to convert starch into solu- 
ble dextrine and sugar, and thus prepare it for digestion by the 
stomach. The glands are three in number, and are named the 
parotid, the submaxillary, and the sublingual. The first is situated 
at the outside of the angle of the lower jaw ; the second is placed 
on the inside of the lower jaw, near the angle ; and the third is 
beneath the tongue. Ducts from these glands give out the saliva 
naturally whenever the membranes of the mouth are excited by 
the presence of food ; or unduly, as in some diseases which cause 
an excessive secretion of the fluid. The gullet conveys food or 
drink from the mouth to the stomach. The pharynx is the upper 
part of the gullet, by which it is connected with the mouth. It is 
separated from the larynx, the entrance into the windpipe or air 
passage, by a cartilaginous lid called the epiglottis, which, when 
food is swallowed, closes the larynx and allows the food to slide 
over it. The pharynx, gullet, stomach and intestines, together 
form what is termed the alimentary canal. The gullet, also called 
the oesophagus, is a very strong, muscular tube, lined with insensi- 
ble white membrane. The fibers of the muscles run spirally 
around the tube, in opposite directions, and thus cross each other. 
By the contraction of these muscles, gradually extending down- 
wards, food is carried into the stomach ; while by their contrac- 
tion in an upward direction, the food is brought back to the 
mouth to be masticated the second time in the process of rumina- 



180 



THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 




Fig. 70. — EIGHT SIDE OF THE 
STOMACH. 



tion. The food taken up by the lips and teeth is ground and 
mixed with saliva in the mouth, passed backwards by the action 
of the tongue to the gullet, and then forced into the stomach. 

The stomach of the sheep consists of a large irregular sac or pouch, 
divided into four compartments, generally referred to as distinct 

stomachs, or the first, second, third, 
and fourth stomachs, (see figs. 70, 71, 
and 72), or the rumen or paunch, 
seen at b ; the reticulum or honey- 
comb, c ; the omasum or manyplies, 
d-^ and the abomasum, or rennet, or 
true digestive stomach, e. The gul- 
let is seen at a, and the duodenum at 
/. The functions of the stomachs 
of the ruminating animals are known 
only somewhat obscurely. Anatomy 
only teaches their form and charac- 
ter, and leaves all the rest in doubt, 
or to be decided by experiment and 
observation. From the structure of 
the stomachs we are able to form a generally complete idea of the 
process of digestion which goes on within them ; of some of the 
details there is nothing certain as yet to offer. The first two 
stomachs are placed parallel to each other, and the gullet ends 
almost equally in each, as seen at a 
in fig. 72, which shows the inside 
formation of the stomachs. The 
second stomach, c, communicates 
with the third by the oesophagean 
canal, g^ which opens into the third 
stomach, (not seen in figs. 70 and 71), 
and ends there. The fourth stomach 
is connected with the third by a 
distinct opening. The paunch, 5, is 
the largest compartment, being four 
times the capacity of the other three 
together. It is divided into four in- 
complete compartments by muscular 
walls, and is lined with a membrane covered by a multitude of soft 
pillars compressed closely together, which make an uneven surface. 
The second stomach, c, is lined with cells having five or six sides 
from which it takes the common name, the honeycomb. These 
two compartments, or stomachs, are in reality one, the latter being 




Fisr. 71.- 



-TiEPT SIDE OF THE 
STOMACH. 



THE STOMACH, 



181 




-nSTTERIOR OF THK 
STOMACH. 



simply an appendage of the former. The oesopbagean canal which 
leads from the second stomach to the third, performs a very im- 
portant function in the act of rumi- 
nation, or it is supposed with reason 
so to do, as will be explained further on. 
The third stomach or "manyplies," 
in the sheep the smallest of the stom- 
achs, is lined with a number of leaves 
or folds, placed lengthwise, by which 
the surface is greatly increased. The 
fourth stomach joins the thirds and 
communicates with it by an opening 
immediately opposite to the cesopha- 
gean orifice. The fourth stomach is 
lined witli a membrane which secretes 
the gastric juice, the true digestive 
solvent. It opens directly into the duodenum or small intestine. 

RuminaUon, or chewing the cud, is a process which distinguishes 
a class of animals, known as ruminants, from all others. For the 
performance of this process the complicated stomach above de- 
scribed is provided. To understand this important alimentary 
process, it is necessary to ascertain first, into which of the stom- 
achs the food passes after its first mastication ; second, in what 
manner and by what process the food is rejected by these stom- 
achs and returned to the mouth for a second mastication ; third, 
to which of the stomachs is the food finally transmitted for com- 
plete digestion. 

Some careful experiments, by the French physiologist, Flourens, 
have to a great extent determined these questions ; and the com- 
parative anatomist, Chauveau, has summed up the functions of the 
stomachs of ruminants as ascertained from every modern source 
of information as follows : 

1st. The rumen is a sac in which the food swallowed during 
feeding time is held in reserve, and is softened, and whence it is 
carried to the mouth during rumination. 

2nd. The reticulum partakes of the functions of the rumen, to 
which it plays the part of an accessory or reservoir ; the food con- 
tained in it being always diluted by a larger quantitj'- of water. 

3rd. The cesophagean canal carries into the omasum the food 
swallowed the second time, or after rumination, or even those por- 
tions of food wMch tlie animal swallows in very small quantity and 
in a finely divided or softened condition the first time. 



182 THE shephekd's mai^ual. 

4th. The omasum completes the maceration or reduction of the 
food to a sufficiently fine condition for digestion, by pressing it 
between its leaves. 

5th. The ahomasum is the true digestive stomach, and finally 
dissolves the food by its gastric secretion. 

In these processes the oesophagean canal performs a peculiar func- 
tion. The ordinary food of the ruminating animal is coarse in 
texture, and when swallow^ed is bulky. When it enters into the 
stomach and meets the opening of the oesophagean canal, it forces 
open, by its bulk, the muscular lips of which the opening is com- 
posed, and drops partly into the first, and partly into the second 
stomach. M. Flourens has satisfied himself, by careful experi- 
ments upon a living sheep, that w^hen the animal ruminates, a por- 
tion of the food swallowed previously and now contained in the 
first and second stomachs — which are really one— is forced by a 
contraction of the stomach into the oesophagean canal, and this then 
contracting, closes all the other openings except that of the gullet, 
and at the same time compresses the morsel of food into a pellet or 
ball, which is immediately forced by the upward muscular con- 
traction of the gullet into the mouth. When it has been chewed 
and mingled with the copious secretion of saliva which takes place 
during rumination, it is again swallowed. Being now softened 
and in a semi-liquid condition, it passes over the lips of the open- 
ing of the canal, without forcing them apart, into the second 
stomach, and enters the third stomach ; a small portion of it only 
escaping into the first and second stomachs. When fine or semi- 
liquid food is first swallowed, it follows exactly the same course, 
the same being true of water when drank. From the third stom- 
ach the food passes on to the fourth stomach to be finally disposed 
of. It has been found that the pellets of food, returned to the 
mouth for rumination, are of the precise size, shape, and form of 
the portion of the oesophagean canal between the first and third 
stomachs. Sheep have been dissected with these pellets ready 
formed in the canal for transmission to the mouth. 

The intestines of the sheep are of great length, being twenty- 
eight times longer than its body. In the duodenum, which is the 
upper portion of the intestines that directly communicates with 
the lower orifice of the stomach, the partially digested mass of 
food undergoes still further changes. As it passes from the stom- 
ach it is termed chyme. In the duodenum the chyme is mingled 
with the bile, which comes from the liver, and the pancreatic juice, 
a secretion of the pancreas, or " sweet-bread," and becomes fitted 



THE LIVER. 183 

for absorption by the lacteals which communicate with the intes- 
tines. It is now termed chyle, and is a white milky fluid which 
enters the thoracic duct and mingles with the blood as previously 
described. The refuse and insoluble portion of the food, with un- 
used portions of the bile pass on through the lower intestines, and 
is discharged by the rectum as dung. 

The liver is a large organ with the appearance of which almost 
every person is familiar. It is called a gland, because its office is 
to secrete a fluid which is peculiar to it, and it is the largest gland 
in the body. Its secretion is called the bile. Its position in the 
body is below the diaphragm and adjacent to the stomachs, with 
the third of which it is in direct contact. It is enveloped in the 
peritoneum or membrane which covers and also encloses the whole 
of the contents of the abdomen, and forms as it were a sac or bag, 
one-half of which is doubled into the other half. The liver in sub- 
stance is granular, consisting of grains, or lobules, from one-tenth 
to one-twentieth of an inch in diameter. Its color is reddish 
brown. The lobules of which it is composed are closely packed, 
and are held together by fine tissue and a net-work of minute 
veins and ducts. Each lobule is connected with a blood vessel at 
its base, and another vessel comes from the center of the lobule 
and joins the former one at its base. Between these two is an 
exceedingly fine net- work of capillary vessels similar to those pre- 
viously described. By means of arteries and veins called portal 
canals, which enter and ramify through the substance of the liver, 
the blood is carried into and through the substance of each lobule 
in streams of exceeding fineness. From the blood thus passing 
through the lobules, the gall or bile is secreted by small cells not ex- 
ceeding Vioooth of an inch in diameter, and is collected into minute 
vessels called biliary ducts, from which it is gathered into larger 
ducts, which pour their contents into the great bile ducts. There is 
a receptacle in the liver of the sheep known as the gall-bladder, to 
which the gall is carried from the hepatic duct by another duct 
named the cystic duct. "When the gall contained in the gall-blad- 
der is required for use, it returns by the same duct into the hepatic 
duct, and thence into the great bile duct which ends in the duo- 
denum, below the stomach. 

The gall is an alkaline fluid of composite character, containing 
soda, two peculiar acids, (glycocholic'and taurocholic, the latter of 
which contains sulphur) ; mucus ; cholesterine ; stearic, oleic, and 
lactic acids, with potash and ammonia, and a peculiar coloring 
matter. It is in fact a sort of liquid soap. The bile is poured 
into the duodenum by the great bile duct. Near this duct is 



18"4 THE shephekd's manual. 

another from which flows the secretion of the pancreas or 
sweet-bread. This fluid is slightly alkaline and very similar to 
the saliva. Its ofiice is supposed to be to change the undissolved 
starch in the chyme into sugar, and to form an emulsion with the 
oil or fat of the food, and prepare it for absorption directly into 
the blood or into the lac teals. The office of the gall is to neutral- 
ize the acidity of the chyme derived from the gastric juice, which 
is an acid fluid, to assist in the transformation of starch into su- 
gar, and the absorption of oil or fat. It is the chief agent in 
changing the chyme of the stomach into the chyle, which is the 
perfected source of nutrition of the blood. The perfect action of 
the liver is therefore absolutely necessary to the sustenance and 
the life of the animal. The quantity of gall secreted by the liver 
of the sheep every twenty-four hours is from 3 to 5 pounds. The 
whole of this, however, is not destroyed in the performance of its 
office, but a large portion is taken into the system in the circula- 
tion, the surplus being regained from the blood by the secreting 
cells of the liver and again returned for duty to the intestines. 
Another office of the liver is to prepare crude albuminous matter 
of the blood for final absorption into it. It is also able to form 
sugar from other carbonaceous matters conveyed to it in the chyle 
absorbed by the lacteal vessels. Thus the liver acts as a filter, in 
separating detrimental matters from the blood, besides supplying 
a necessary agent in digestion, as well as for respiration. Its im- 
portance in the animal functions cannot be over-estimated. 

Tim lacteals are a series of small absorbent vessels which form a 
net-work in connection with the coats of the intestines, and pro- 
ceed to the thoracic duct, where they terminate. They exist much 
more numerously in connection with the small intestines than 
with the lower ones. Their chief seat is the mesentery, which is 
the thin membrane which supports the small intestines. The lac- 
teals enter the numerous glands of the mesentery, and pass 
through them, uniting to form larger vessels and becoming fewer 
and fewer in number, being finally reduced to two or three ducts 
which end in the thoracic duct. The lacteals absorb the chyle, 
which is presented to them in the intestines, convey it to the glands 
in which it is enriched and perfected, and thence convey it to 
the vessels which terminate in the duct from which the new nutri- 
tive matter is poured into the large vein near its junction with the 
heart, to enter into the circulation. 

The chyle is very similar in its composition to the blood, differ- 
ing from it chiefly in the absence of coloring matter, or the red 
globules which give the color to the blood. It coa/julates on 



THE EXCKETORY OKGAKS. 185 

being allowed to rest, although the clot is softer than that of the 
blood. 

The tJioracic duct extends from the loins to the neck, and its 
course is along the spine. It is the principal trunk of the absorb- 
ent system, and, as has been explained, is the connecting link be- 
tween the digestive organs and the circulatory system, as the pul- 
monary artery and vein is the connecting link between the circu- 
latory and respiratory system. 

llie splee7i\a another organ which is very important, as being the 
seat of a rather obscurely understood disease, known as splenic 
apoplexy. It consists of a spongy mass of tissue of a mottled blue 
or purplish gray color. It is suspended near the great curvature 
of the stomach, but of its functions nothing is precisely known. 
It is supposed to act as a reservoir of blood for the portal vein ; it 
is also supposed to destroy the red globules of the blood, as it 
has been discovered to contain blood globules in a state of decom- 
position. It is, however, known that, in the course of researches 
to discover the uses of this gland, animals from which it has been 
removed have recovered from the operation, and have continued 
to live in apparent good health. The fact of its engorgement 
with blood in the disease of ruminants known as splenic fever or 
apoplexy, and its increase of volume in certain bilious disorders, 
would tend to show that its functions are in some way closely 
connected with the circulation, and perhaps with the digestive 
processes and nutrition. 

The Urinary or Excretory Organs. — The urine is separated from 
the arterial blood by the kidneys. These organs, with the liver 
and the lungs, are employed in the purification of the blood. The 
liver separates compounds abounding in hydrogen, the lungs those 
which abound in carbon, and the kidneys those abounding in ni- 
trogen. The nitrogen eliminated through the kidneys exists in 
the form of urea, a crystalline substance which readily decomposes 
and gives off its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. There are two 
kidneys, one each side of the spinal column. The kidneys are 
attached firmly to the loins ; in the sheep they are shaped like a 
bean, and are imbedded in fat. They perform a double oflBce, or 
two separate functions, one being to discharge from the blood any 
excess of water that may accumulate in it ; the other being to rid 
the blood of excess of saline matter and the products that result 
from the waste of the tissues. The blood enters the kidneys by 
arteries, and the urine, separated as by a filter, through a very com- 
plex system of capillaries, flows into two white ducts termed ure- 
ters, which pass it onwards to the bladder. The urine of the 



186 



THE SHEPHEED'S MAI^TUAL. 



sheep is not so copious as that of the cow in proportion to its size, 
but possesses a larger proportion of salts. The following is an 
analysis of sheep's urine : 

Water 96.0 per cent. 

Urea with some albuminoids and coloring matter 2.8 " " 
Salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, silica, iron, 
alumina, and manganese 1.2 '* " 

100.00 " 

In fig. 73 is shown a section of the substance of the kidney 
highly magnified, in which appear the uriniferous, (urine carrying) 
ducts or tubes, («, a), surrounded by the secreting glandular sub- 
stance, {b, b)y which is enclosed in the net- work of the arteries, 
(c, c), and the fibrous tissue, (<?, d). 

The bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity, or the lower part of 
the abdomen. It is composed of two coats, the outer one being 
muscular, and capable of contracting so as to expel its contents. 
One half is enveloped in a third coat, and the other half in the 

tissue of the pelvic 
region, and masses of 
fatty matter. The mus- 
cular coat consists of 
fibers placed in various 
directions, lengthwise, 
crosswise, oblique, and 
spiral, so that in the act 
of contraction the blad- 
der is reduced in size 
Fig. 73.-STBUCTTmE OP THE KIDNEY. evculy and in every 

direction. A strong muscle encircles the opening, from which the 
urine is discharged, and which is called the neck of the bladder. The 
contraction of this muscle closes the neck and retains the contents, 
its relaxation opens the orifice and allows the contents to be ex- 
pelled. From the neck of the bladder proceeds the urethra, by 
which the urine is discharged. In the ewe the urethra is very 
short, in the ram it is much longer, and passes down from the 
anus along the abdomen to the extremity of the penis. The func- 
tions of the bladder are very important. It serves as a reservoir 
for the urinal fluid which is constantly secreted by the kidneys 
and retains it until a considerable quantity has been accumulated, 
and thus spares the animal from otherwise continually dribbling 
away the urine as it is secreted. 

The Reproductive Organs. — These are entirely different in the 




THE KEPRODUCTIVE ORGANS. 187 

male and female. The female organs are more abundantly devel- 
oped than those of the male, and have more intricate functions to 
fulfill. They consist of two secreting organs called ovaries, which 
are charged with the elaboration of the ovum or egg ; the uterine 
tube through which the ovum passes on leaving the ovary; 
the uterus or womb in which it rests after its impregnation, 
and in which it remains until it is fully developed ; and the 
vagina or canal through which the foetus or youug animal when 
perfected is discharged. In addition there are two mammae or 
milk-producing glands enclosed in the skin, and attached to the 
lower part of the abdomen and inner parts of the thighs, each of 
which has a set of secreting glands and milk ducts flowing into 
a tube which has its orifice in the teat. These milk glands are 
called the udder. The ovum is a cell about Viooth of an inch in di- 
ameter, which is contained in another cell or ovisac, of which the 
ovaries contain a certain number. At stated periods called the 
oestrum or condition of " heat," the ovaries become excited and 
distended, and discharge one (or more) of these ovisacs, which, par- 
taking of the condition of the ovaries, becomes distended and bursts, 
releasing the ovum, which, when it is brought into contact with 
the impregnating fluid of the male in the uterine tube, undergoes 
a change, enters into the uterus, and in course of time becomes a 
living animal. When the female is not brought into connection 
with the male at the season of heat, the ovum undergoes no change, 
but passes on to the uterus, where it is absorbed. The impregna- 
ted ovum, when it reaches the uterus, becomes grafted upon its 
lining membrane and draws directly from the mother's blood the 
materials for its development. 

In the male the reproductive organs consist of two glands, which 
in the ram are suspended in a sac between the thighs. This sac is 
called the scrotum. The glands, called the testicles or testes, are 
each enclosed in four envelopes, being separate and distinct from 
each other. One of these envelopes is a portion of the peritoneum 
or lining of the abdomen, which descends through an opening in 
the abdomen. This opening remains afterwards, and it is thus 
that in castrating the ram, the inflammation which often takes 
place, spreads into the abdomen and destroys the animal. The 
glands are oval in shape, and consist of a grayish pulp. They are 
attached to the spermatic cord and artery, and their function is to 
secrete the spermatic or impregnating fluid, which is alkaline, and 
contains minute filaments not larger than Veooo to Ysoooth of an inch 
in length. These filaments possess the power of independent 
movement for some days after their expulsion from the organs of 



188 THE shepherd's manual. 

the male. A canal or duct called the vas deferens, leads from the 
testes to the outward and exposed male organ. In the ram this 
organ has at its extremity a small spiral appendage called the 
vermiform, (or worm-like), appendage. This has a very narrow 
orifice, and is often on this account the seat of obstructions which 
are diflScult to remove. 

The testicles of the ram are very large in proportion to its size, 
and the whole reproductive powers are highly vigorous, enabling 
him, when well nourished, to serve effectively a hundred ewes in 
a season. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF THE SHEEP. 

In judging of the symptoms of disease in the sheep, it is neces- 
sary to take into account the nature, constitution, and habits of 
this animal. The diseases of the sheep are numerous and more 
generally fatal than those of other domestic animals. The diges- 
tive organs of the sheep are largely and powerfully developed, and 
its capacity for the production of blood is very great. Yet its 
needs for this large supply of blood is not to support its nervous 
system, which is feebly developed, nor its muscular exertion, of 
which it is incapable to any great extent, nor its circulation, which 
is onl}'- of inferior amount, but the surplus must necessarily go to 
the production of flesh, fat, and wool. In the sheep, therefore, 
the production of flesh, fat, and wool, is the chief of its functions, 
and the greater part of its vitality is expended in this way, leaving 
but a small amount to sustain the comparatively weak vascular 
system. The sheep is unable to sustain severe muscular labor ; and 
slow movement, except for very limited periods, is all that it is 
capable of. From the small brain development of the sheep, its 
weak nervous and circulating system, it is to a great extent free from 
diseases of an inflammatory character. From the large exercise 
of its digestive powers, it is to be expected that diseases of the di- 
gestive organs should be frequent and serious, and this we find 
to be the case. From the same causes that render it compara- 
tively free from diseases of an irritating character, it with more 
than usual readiness succumbs to those in which debility and the 
exhaustive effects of parasites are the chief features. Indeed it is 
to the attacks of parasites, both external and internal, that sheep 
owe their most troublesome and fatal disorders. Infectious or 
contagious diseases have greater scope for action amongst sheep 
than amongst other domestic animals, by reason of their gathering 
together in large flocks, and thus being more exposed to unwhole- 



THE DISEASES OF SHEEP. 189 

some influences than those animals which are usually kept singly, 
or which when kept in large numbers, naturally break up into 
small separate herds. .The structure of the foot, and tlie manner 
of the growth of the crust and sole are such as to subject it to dis- 
ease in that organ from which other animals are free. In the 
management of a flock of sheep, it is necessary to bear in mind the 
peculiarities and habits, so that the watchful care of the shepherd 
may be given as far as possible to exercise precautions which may 
prevent disease. Fortunately our climate is so well adapted to 
these peculiarities and habits, that our flocks suflfer from far fewer 
diseases than those of other less favorable climates, and at present 
many diseases prevalent in other countries are unknown to us ex- 
cept by report. Precautions to be efi'ective must be intelligently 
exercised, and it is only by thoroughly understanding his flock 
that the shepherd can know what to avoid and wliat to do. The 
symptoms which indicate approaching disease should be instantly 
recognized, or the threatened danger cannot be averted. Then the 
timely remedy may be employed, which is rarely ineflective, while 
that which comes later is rarely serviceable or eflcctive. The 
remedies to be administered must be consistent with the peculiar- 
ities of the sheep. Possessing but a weak vascular and nervous 
system, and a small supply of circulating blood, bleeding is rarely 
called for, and can be employed only with danger of doing harm 
in place of good. For the same reason tonic and stimulating med- 
icines are more frequently needed, and may be given in larger 
doses. Purgatives, especially saline ones, for the same reason, 
always demand an accompanying stinmlant. 

Purgative are frequently called for, as the digestive organs 
so abundantly developed and largely exercised, are readily dis- 
eased or disordered, and disturbance of the system rarely occurs 
without sympathetically or otherwise involving those organs. 
The veterinarian used to study the diseases of the horse, and to 
apply his reasoning to the peculiarities of that animal, is too apt to 
lose sight of the vast surface of the stomachs of the slieep, the in- 
sensibility of much of this surface, and the fact that medicine ad- 
ministered with the food or in solid form, will most probably fall 
into the rumen, where it will be ineflfective. So too the shepherd, 
who consults veterinary works, will be misled to a great extent, 
and be induccil to believe the too common idea that it is folly to 
physic a sheep, and the best treatment is to cut its throat at once, 
III treating sheep, purgatives are useful to reduce fever, to lower 
inflammation, and to restore tone to the stomach and liver. They 
should always be given in a liquid form. Of all the purgatives, 



190 THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

Epsom Salts and Linseed Oil (always raw) are the most suitable 
and effective. The action of stimulants given along with a purga- 
tive is always beneficial. 

Stimulants, of which Ginger, Gentian, Aniseed, and Pepper- 
mint-oil are the most usual and useful, restore the tone of the 
stomachs and excite them to action, thus aiding in the operation of 
the purgative, which might otherwise still further enfeeble them. 

Bleeding, when it is necessary in the outset of inflammatory dis- 
orders or local excitements, should be performed by operating on 
the veins under the eye (see fig. 76) or the ear ; the inside of the 
fore arm is a convenient place ; when a large quantity is to be 
taken, the jugular vein of the neck may be opened by first cut- 
ting off some of the wool, pressing the vein with the finger, and 
cutting it lengthwise — never crosswise — with a sharp lancet. Never 
less than two ounces or a wine-glassful should be taken, and rarely 
more than half a pint. 

In referring to the diseases hereinafter treated of, as far as 
possible, the causes to which they may generally be attributed, 
with the means of prevention, will be given. The remedies men- 
tioned will be those to be given to a full-grown animal, for lambs, 
one-half or less of the doses should be given, and for very young 
lambs, still less should be given. 

The most prolific causes of disease are over-feeding, under-feed- 
ing, irregularity of feeding, want of water, drinking impure water, 
impure air, damp, and over-driving. If these were avoided there 
would be but little complaint of the frequent troubles, difficulties, 
and losses in keeping sheep. While they exist, medicine, at the 
best, is but a temporary expedient, effective only during the time 
in which extra care is used. When this care is allowed to relapse 
the trouble will infallibly recur. 

CAUSES, PREVENTION, AND TREATMENT, OF DISEASES 
COMMON TO SHEEP. 

DISEASES OP THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. 

Catarrh is very common during the fall, winter, and spring. It 
will be found on close observation to be rarely absent in any flock. 
In our dry climate, subject, however, to sudden changes of temper- 
ature, catarrh, or cold, is mostly due to exposure to damp in open 
yards, or to too high a temperature in sheds or pens, rather than to 
exposure to the weather in open fields. Flocks that are more care- 



DISEASES OF THE LUKGS. 191 

fully tended and housed than usual, are found to be more subject 
to it than others. Of two flocks equally well fed, but one of 
which is carefully shut up every night and protected (?) from every 
draft of fresh air, and another whose bed is the snow in an open, 
airy, dry yard, it will be the first that will be troubled with cough 
and discharge from the nose, while the latter will be free from it. 
Fresh air, ample ventilation in partly open sheds, dry yards and 
clean, dry bedding, and protection from chilling rain-storms in 
winter, with whatever protection may be needed immediately after 
shearing, should the weather be cold and rainy, will generally be 
amply sufficient to prevent any trouble from this complaint. Chas- 
ing by dogs and consequent over-heating, and over-driving, are 
certain causes, and these should be carefully avoided. The judg- 
ment of the shepherd should be exercised in exceptional cases, act- 
ing always under the general rule that dry cold is rarely hurtful 
to sheep, while they suffer from wet or damp cold, and that moist, 
warm, steamy, close atmosphere, especially when confined in sta- 
bles, will inevitably produce cold or catarrh, which if not at once 
remedied will generally result in serious disorders of the lungs. 
This disease consists of inflammation of the lining membrane of 
the throat, windpipe, nostrils, and the sinuses of the head. It 
produces an increase of the secretion of mucus and consequent ir- 
ritation and coughing. When long continued, the cough becomes 
dry and deep seated, showing that the lungs are involved. 

The treatment consists in removal of the causes, good nursing, ad- 
ministering slightly warm mucilaginous drinks, as oat-meal gruel or 
linseed tea, along with a gentle stimulant, such as half a teaspoonful 
of ground ginger. The antiseptic effect of a small quantity of clean 
pine tar rubbed upon the sheep's nose, some of which the animal 
will lick off and swallow, will be beneficial. If there is fever, and 
the nose is dry and hot, the following may be given, viz : 

Epsom Salts , V2 ounce. 

Saltpeter 1 dram. 

Ground Ginger 1 dram. 

This should be mixed with molasses and placed on the back part of 
the tongue with a long, narrow bladed wooden knife or spatula. 
The animal's head should be held up until the whole is swallow^ed 
in repeated small quantities. Or the dose may be mixed with 
thin gruel and administered by means of a small horn. 

BronchUis is simply a deep-seated catarrh which affects the bron- 
chial tubes or air passages in the body of the lungs. It is danger- 
ous, inasmuch as the inflammation readily spreads and affects the 
lungs. In bronchitis the cough is more severe than in catarrh, 



192 THE shepherd's MAI^UAL. 

the pulse and the respiration are both quickened, there is some 
fever, and the appetite fails. The treatment is the same as that 
prescribed for catarrh, but to be continued longer, changing the 
dose to the following, to be administered for three or four days, 
reducing the quantity of saltpeter gradually one-half. 

Linseed-oil 1 ounce. 

Saltpeter 1 dram. 

Powdered Gentian 1 dram. 

Bleeding must not be attempted in this disease. Quietness is in- 
dispensable, and a clean, airy, but solitary, pen should be provided, 
and a plenty of pure, fresh water supplied. 

Pneumonia or Inflammation of the Lungs. — This is a more fre- 
quent disease than is generally suspected. Many sheep exhibit 
the peculiar symptoms of pneumonia, and are too far gone for re- 
covery before their too careless owners are aware that they are 
affected. High-bred imported sheep, the Leicester more particu- 
larly, are very liable to this disease, which is generally fatal to 
them. It consists of inflammation of the substance of the lungs, 
and frequently follows neglected attacks of bronchitis, the inflam- 
mation easily and quickly passing from the lining membrane of 
the air-passages to the cellular tissue of the lungs. Washing in 
streams of cold spring water, or sudden chills from exposure to cold 
showers, quickly succeeding hot weather, or when heated with 
driving, or after shearing, or too close penning in warm stables in 
cold weather, are the usual causes. It is rarely that this disease 
develops fully without previously passing through the earlier 
stages, or without some serious mistake in the management of the 
sheep; and it is only by instant attention and proper treatment 
that its usually rapid and fatal course can be arrested. 

The symptoms are a quick and labored breathing with painful 
heaving of the flanks ; a painful cough ; discharge of thick yellow 
mucus from the nostrils, high fever, and great thirst ; hard, quick 
pulse ; constant grinding of the teeth, together with loss of appe- 
tite and rumination. On examination after death, the lungs are 
found to be hard and gorged with blood, and if thrown into water 
they sink to the bottom. The disease usually terminates in death 
in from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. 

Treatment is of no avail unless commenced immediately. Bleed- 
ing from the jugular vein, until the animal staggers, is the first and 
most effective remedy. If found necessaiy, this should be repeated 
in six hours. Two ounces of Epsom salts should be given imme- 
diately after the bleeding ; if this does not cause free purging, one 
ounce more may be given in three hours. Copious purging is not 



DISEASES OF THE LUIJGS. 193 

to be dreaded in this disease with sheep as with the horse. Injec- 
tions of thin oat-meal gruel, strained, should be given every two 
hours. After the bowels have been well evacuated, the following 
may be given twice a day in oat-meal or linseed gruel : 

Powdered Digitalis 1 scruple. 

Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 

Tartar emetic 1 scruple. 

to be continued several days. As soon as the sheep improves and 
begins to move about, a pint of gruel may be given every three 
hours with half a dram of powdered Gentian. Warm drinks of 
dissolved gum Arabic, or linseed-meal tea, in which a little honey 
is dissolved, will be useful. The nostrils should be freed from 
accumulated mucus by washing or sponging with a mixture of 
equal parts vinegar and water, or of one ounce of acetic acid with 
a quart of water. Some of the acidulated water should be squeezed 
into the nostrils to clear them as far as possible. 

One dram doses of tartar emetic alone have been given with 
benefit in this disease. As it is in nearly every case avoidable by 
proper care and precaution, and is rarely cured when once well 
seated, it will be by far the best policy to prevent its occurrence. 

Pleurisy^ or inflammation of the membrane covering the lungs 
and the lining of the cavity of the chest, is produced by the same 
causes as pneumonia. It frequently accompanies this latter dis- 
ease. It most frequently follows the careless washing of sheep or 
their exposure to cold winds with wet fleeces, or from a severe 
chill after having been sheared. After an attack of this disease, 
and a seeming recovery, an adhesion of the lungs to the sides of 
the chest often takes place which prevents the sheep from thriving 
and keeps them in poor condition, from which they cannot be 
recovered. Wide-spread causes, chiefly those arising from the un- 
favorable condition of the weather, sometimes affect the flocks of 
extensive districts, and lead to the supposition that the disease is 
epizootic or contagious. This, however, is not the case. 

Prevention consists in watchful care to protect the sheep from 
sudden change of the weather at a time when they are more than 
usually exposed to its ill effects ; also from a too sudden change 
from housing to open pasturing in the spring. All sudden changes 
in the management of sheep should be made with caution, a 
change, even from poor to rich feed, may produce this or other in- 
flammatory diseases, and care must be exercised in this respect. 

The symptoms are similar to those of inflammation of the lungs ; 
more pain is experienced, and the sheep exhibits more distress, 
sometimes moaning in agony. After death, the cavily of the chest 
9 



194 



THE shepherd's MAKUAL. 



is found filled with fluid ; the surface of the lungs is highly in- 
flamed, and covered with livid patches, but their substance is not 
afiected. Generally no trace of disease is found elsewhere. 

The treatment consists in copious bleeding as for pneumonia, 
but more blood may be taken with benefit. The following may 
be given : 

Powdered Digitahs 1 scruple. 

Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 

Nitrous Ether, (Spirits of Nitre) 2 drams. 

to be administered in linseed-meal or oat-meal gruel twice a day 
for four or five days. When recovery be- 
gins, the following tonic may be substituted : 

Sulphate of Iron Va dram. 

Infusion of Quassia or Chamomile .. 1/4 pint. 
Ground Ginger 1/2 dram. 

If the animal is valuable, it may sometimes 
be saved after the efiusion of serum in the 
chest has occurred to a considerable extent, 
by tapping the cavity with a trochar and 
canula, (fig. 74), and drawing off the fluid. 
When this effusion has taken place, it may 
be discovered by tapping the sides of the 
chest, when a dull dead sound only is heard ; 
also by a gurgling sound during expiration, 
which is painful and difficult. The trochar 
is inserted cautiously between the eighth and 
ninth ribs, and the canula left in the opening 
through which the fluid flows. Generous feed- 
ing and great care are needed after tapping. 

DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 

GhoJcing. — Sheep are not often troubled 
with obstructions of the gullet, except when 
fed upon cut or sliced turnips, or permitted 
to consume the shells of turnips which have 
been scooped out by them in the field. When 
a sheep is thus choked, the head is held 
down, saliva flows from the mouth, breath- 
ing is difficult, and the stomach becomes dis- 
tended with gas, or air swallowed in the ef- 
forts to dislodge the obstruction. When this occurs, the sheep's 
head should be raised and held firmly between one man's legs, 




Fig. 74. — TROCHAR 
AND CANULA. 



COSTIYENESS. 195 

while another pours a teaspoonful of linseed oil or melted lard 
down the throat and endeavors by gently manipulating the gullet 
to work the obstruction downwards. If this is ineffectual, a pro- 
bang should be used. This is a flexible thin rod, as the wash rod of 
a rifle, or a piece of light rattan or other tough elastic material. A 
soft ball of tow, or of strips of linen cloth is securely fastened to the 
end of the rod. This is well soaked with sweet oil or lard, and 
gently inserted mto the gullet until it meets the obstruction, when 
it is to be forced downwards without violence, a few gentle, but 
smart taps on the upper end with a light stick being generally 
more effective than continuous pressure. If the lining of the gul- 
let is injured in the operation, and the sheep refuses to eat, gruel 
or other liquid food should be given until the soreness disappears. 
If the obstruction cannot be removed in this way, the sheep had 
better be slaughtered. If it is a valuable animal, an effort which 
is frequently successful, may be made to save it by cutting open 
the skin and the gullet upon the obstruction, and removing it. The 
opening in the gullet is then closed by a stitch made with a sur- 
geon's curved needle, and the wound in the skin closed separately 
in the same manner. The sheep should be securely held during 
this operation. Soft food should be given until the wound is 
healed. (See Treatment of Wounds). 

Costiveness — Stretches. — This complaint is more frequently a 
sjnnptom of disease than a disease itself. Yet it frequently occurs 
when changing the flock from pasture to dry food. The dung 
then becomes dry, hard, and scanty, and is discharged irregularly. 
The termination of the bowel is red and inflamed, and when void- 
ing dung, the sheep grunts or moans as with pain. Care in chang- 
ing the food is a preventive, and a few ounces of linseed-cake-meal 
daily will obviate the difficulty. Injections of warm soap and 
water, or of one ounce of linseed-oil, will relieve the bowels, and 
one ounce of linseed-oil given by the mouth will generally bring 
about a cure. 

When the costiveness is of long continuance, from neglect, the 
sheep may be perceived stretching itself, spreading the feet apart, 
raising the head, curving the back, and extending the abdomen. 
This may also occur from obstruction of the bowels, which, how- 
ever, is rare with sheep, but is most frequently caused by costive- 
ness. A. teaspoonful of Sublimed Sulphur, (Flowers of Sulphur), 
mixed with a small quantity of molasses or lard, may be placed on 
the tongue to be swallowed, once a day, for a week. A regular 
allowance of a mixture of four ounces of Sulphur with one pound 



196 THE shepherd's MAl^UAL. 

of salt, placed where the sheep can have access to it at will, is a 
sure preventive of costiveness. 

DlarrTiea or Scours. — A looseness of the bowels, without pain, 
fever, or other complications, frequently occurs when sheep are 
turned to pasture in the sprmg, or turned on to rich succulent 
green food, as clover, rape, or turnips. It is sometimes perceived 
when they are exposed to the hot sun in early spring without 
shelter. It is not dangerous of itself, but as the disease very 
quickly interferes with the process of nutrition, the blood is soon 
affected, and the more serious blood disorder, dysentery, super- 
venes. Diarrhea may generally be prevented by careful regula- 
tion of the food, and avoiding sudden changes, and the regular 
supply of salt. It is quickly subject to proper treatment, which 
consists of the administration of astringents and cordial prepara- 
tions. The followmg mixture should always be kept on hand by 
the shepherd, ready for instant use : 

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce. 

" Catechu 4 drams. 

" Ginger 2 " 

" Opium V2 " 

to be mixed with half a pint of peppermint water and bottled for 
use. Two large tablespoonfuls of this is given night and morning 
to a sheep, and half as much to a lamb, always previously shaking 
the mixture well. Cotton-seed-cake-meal is both an excellent pre- 
ventive and remedy for this complaint, and a supply should be 
kept for use. Half a pound a day should be given to a sheep. 

If any mucus or glutinous substance appears in the dung it is 
a proof of the existence of irritating matter in the intestines, and 
a laxative should be given previously to the above. This may be 

Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 

Powdered Ginger 1 dram. 

OK 

Epsom Salts 1 ounce. 

Ginger i/^ dram. 

Gentian 1/2 dram. 

to be given in infusion of linseed-meal. 

Hoven, or distension of the mmen, is not uncommon in sheep. 
It consists in the formation of gas in the first stomach, or rumen, 
by which it is so much distended as to press injuriously upon the 
diaphragm or membrane which encloses the chest. This prevent- 
ing the contraction of the diaphragm interferes with the respira- 
tion. It appears as an enlargement of tlie left side of the abdomen, 
by which the skin is tightly drawn until in apparent danger of 



BLOATING. 197 

bursting. It is caused by the rapid fermentation in the stomach 
of very succulent green food, which has been greedily swallowed 
while wet with dew or rain. The stomach may at the time be 
disordered, and its digestive powers impaired ; or the distension 
may be produced by other diseases of which it is an attendant or 
a symptom. In such a case it indicates a decrease or chemical 
change of the alkaline secretions of the rumen. The treatment 
should be immediate, lest suffocation ensue. An alkaline fluid 
poured into the rumen, frequently alleviates the symptoms and 
removes the trouble. This may be 

Ammonia Water {Aqua Ammonice) 1 teaspoonful. 

Water 1/2 pint. 

to be administered through a horn. A hollow, flexible probang, 
which should be kept for this purpose may be inserted through 
the gullet into the rumen, by which a means of escape for the 
gas may be made. The alkaline liquid mentioned may be 
poui'ed into the stomach through the tube of the probang, or 
an opening may be made through the flank into the rumen with 
the trochar and canula, (fig. 74), or by a small bladed knife. This 
opening should be cautiously made at the spot where the greatest 
swelling is found. In the latter case a quill should be inserted 
into the hole to allow the gas to escape. If the passage be stopped 
by solid matter, a wire may be put through the quill to restore the 
opening. The ammoniacal liquid previously mentioned, or a solu- 
tion of a teaspoonful carbonate of soda in quarter of a pint of 
water may be injected through the quill with a common syringe. 
Afterwards the following may be given with the horn : 

Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 

Ginger 1 dram. 

Water 1 Pi^t. 

If the production of gas still continues, a dram of chloride of lime 
dissolved in water will tend to remove the gases generated by the 
now decomposing food. 

Where none of these appliances are at hand, the following sub- 
stitutes may be used, viz: Flour, lard, and salt, to form a bolus 
mixed with one dram of carbonate of ammonia, at the early stage, 
or one dram of chloride of lime at the later stage. Small boluses 
of this mixture to be placed on the root of the tongue or into the 
gullet, so that they may be swallowed. Sulphuric ether is some- 
times given in doses of two drams each in cold water, it is a valu- 
able stimulant and antispasmodic when the animal becomes rigid 
or convulsed. 



198 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



The after treatment should he tonic, and the food should be 

light and not bulky. Bran 
or oat-meal, scalded and 
"well salted, and given 
with 1 dram of ginger 
would be useful. The 
return to copious green 
food should be gradual, 
until the stomach has re- 
gained its tone. 

Poisoning. — At certain 
seasons sheep are tempted 
to devour injurious herbs 
or plants. St. John's- 
wort, when frequent in 
pastures, produces sore 
mouth and irritation of 
the intestines, which 
quickly disappear when 
the sheep are removed to a 
more wholesome pasture. 
The Sheep-Laurel, Lamb- 
kill, or narrow-leaved Kal- 
mia, {Kalmia angustifolia) 
(see fig. 75), is eaten by 
sheep which have access 
to it at certain seasons, 
chiefly during the winter 
and spring, and is often 
fatal to them. The symp- 
toms of poisoning are dis- 
inclination to move, froth- 
ing at the mouth and nose, 
lessened pulse, stagger- 
ing gait, and blood-shot 
eyes. Immediate attention 
should be given, as death 
generally occurs within 
twelve hours. To dilute 
the mass of poisonous 
food, and to expel it 
Fig. 75.-SHEEP-LAUBEL. f^om the system as soon 

as possible, is the proper treatment. This may be done by 




DISEASES OF THE BOWELS. 199 

giving two ounces of Epsom salts in a pint of warm water, and re- 
peating the dose of water without the salts in an hour. Injections 
of warm soap suds will help to remove the injurious matter from 
the bowels. To prevent the danger of poisoning by carefully re- 
moving all injurious plants from the pastures or fences around 
them would be the obvious duty of the careful shepherd. The 
large leaved Laurel, {Kalmia latifolia), is also eaten occasionally by 
sheep. In England, the yew tree, which is common in hedges, 
causes the loss of hundreds of sheep every year. Sheep should 
not be allowed to feed on pastures which have been dressed with 
gypsum, lime, soot, or any chemical fertilizer until after one or 
two copious showers have washed the herbage clean. 

Inflammation of the Bowels.— This disease, (the braxy of the 
English shepherds), is not frequently met with in this country, 
except as an adjunct to some complicated inflammatory blood dis- 
ease. It, however, sometimes occurs as the result of continued in- 
digestion, or the consequence of feeding upon dry, innutritions 
pasture, combined with bad water in hot weather. The first 
symptoms are weeping and redness of the eyes, weakness and 
staggering, loss of appetite and rumination, inaction of the bowels, 
swelling of the flanks, high fever, and difficult breathing, a puck- 
ered up appearance of the mouth and nostrils, which gives a pecu- 
liar wo-begone and pained expression to the face ; a tight skin 
and rapid emaciation. After death, the stomach is found filled 
with putrid food, and distended with gas; the bowels are gangre- 
nous and in a state of decomposition ; the liver is partly decom- 
posed and filled with degenerated bile ; the spleen is gorged with 
blood, softened, enlarged, and not unfrequently ruptured, ulcer- 
ated, and exhibiting a seriously diseased condition. The latter ap- 
pearance seems to identify this complicated and fatal disease with 
the splenic apoplexy or Texan or Spanish fever of cattle. Death 
is often very sudden, many sheeep left in apparent health at night, 
being found dead in the morning ; at the most, two or three days 
is the usual course of this disease. 

To prevent it, when circumstances favor its appearance, an abund- 
ant supply of pure water and a change of pasture should be provid- 
ed. Low grounds should be avoided, and everything done that can 
ameliorate the circumstances of privation in which the flock may 
be temporarily placed. It is not epizootic, and the removal of the 
causes will prevent the spread of the disease. A supply of salt, 
mixed with one per cent each of sulphate of iron, ginger, and gen- 
tian, to be given every evening to the sheep on their return from 
pasture, will be a useful preventive. The treatment should con- 



200 THE shephekd's manual. 

sist of bleeding from the jugular vein, at the first appearance of the 
disease. Bleeding from the vein on the abdomen has also been 
practiced with success. Mild aperients — an ounce of Linseed or 
Castor Oil or Epsom salts— are useful, and should be followed by 
twice daily doses of one dram of Sulphite, (not suliDhate), of Soda. 
The food should be liquid and demulcent, such as oat-meal gruel, 
infusions of linseed or solutions of gum arable. Except the ani- 
mal is a very valuable one, it will be hardly worth while to at- 
tempt a cure in acase of serious character, as the recovery is slow, 
and the following debility is of itself often fatal, after a costly and 
protracted course of treatment. 

Concretions of Foi'eign Bodies in the Stomach. — Sheep are some- 
times observed to purposely swallow earth in small quantities. In 
pasturing green fodder crops or roots, much earth, and sometimes 
small stones, arc swallowed. In eating hay, or other dry fodder, 
foreign matters, such as nails, pieces of wire, or glass, will some- 
times find their way into the stomachs. All these matters cause 
much irritation, and sometimes death. The trouble is shown by 
a suspension of the appetite, the sheep lag behind the rest, stand 
for long periods without moving, grind their teeth, poking out the 
nose, and depressing the ears. When the fiank is pressed a grunt 
of pain is heard, and there is violent purging. When these symp- 
toms are observed, and the sheep are known to have been in 
danger of swallowing any of these substances, this cause may be 
suspected. 

The only treatment that can be of Use is to give daily doses of 
one ounce of Epsom Salts, and feed scalded bran or corn-meal in 
the shape of thick mush in order to remove the foreign matter 
with the food if possible. If this will not be taken, oat-meal or 
corn-meal gruel should be given copiously with the horn. 

Balls of wool and earthy matter are sometimes found after death 
in the stomachs. Thcso are gathered by the sheep nibbling them- 
selves when irritated by lice, ticks, or scab. Generally they exist 
without suspicion of their presence until death occurs, and in 
many cases without known ill effect on the animal. It would be 
safe to avoid possible danger in this direction by keeping the flock, 
especially the lambs, free from parasitical and irritating insects. 

Congestion of the Lixer. — When sheep are highly fed upon stim- 
ulating food, and have but little or no exercise, the liver is apt to 
become gorged with blood. This fullness of blood is termed con- 
gestion. It is occasioned by disordered digestion, and when it 
exists to a serious extent, occasions further complications of this 



DISEASES OF THE LIVER. XCl 

important organ. It produces constipation, dullness, and a yellow- 
ish tinge of the eyes. As soon as this latter sign appears, there 
should be no delay, lest inflammation supervene. 

The treatment consists in giving an active purge, to be repeated 
every morning, until the bowels are in their usual healthy condi- 
tion, the yellowness of the eyes has disappeared, and the appetite 
has returned. The purge may be the following, given in molasses 
placed upon the tongue : 

Epsom Salts 1 ounce. 

Calomel 3 grains. 

The patient should be supplied with slightly warm drink soon 
after swallowing the medicine. 

Inflammation of the Liver. — By neglect, the disease, last men- 
tioned, may result in inflammation of the liver. When this hap- 
pens the system becomes fevered; the nose and mouth hot and 
dry; the breath fetid ; the ears cold; the eyes pale and glassy; 
the pulse is irregular ; breathing is slow, and the expirations short 
and sudden ; the dung is dry, hard, black, and glazed with a greasy 
yellowish-green mucus ; the urine is highl}'- colored, scanty, hot, 
and smells disagreeably. Pressure on the right side, near the 
short ribs, produces pain, and the animal moans. 

The treatment consists of purgatives and injections. For a pur- 
gative, the following may be given twice a day in infusion of lin- 
seed or gum arable or in molasses, well mixed together and placed 
on the tongue : 

Sulphate of Potash 2 drams. 

Calomel 5 grains. 

Powdered Opium 1 grain. 

Injections of warm water and castile soap may be given until the 
bowels act freely. 

When improvement occurs, and the appetite returns, great care 
in feeding should be observed, and only the most easily digested 
food should be given. Pulped sugar beet, scalded clover-hay 
chafi", linseed-meal, boiled malt, or sifted corn-meal, may be given 
with linseed tea for drink, or water acidulated with a few drops 
of aromatic sulphuric acid. 

DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 

The blood being the very foundation of the life of the animal, 
must exist in a state of purity, or ihe vital functions are at once 
disordered. Anything, therefore, that vitiates the blood or unfits 
it for the proper performance of those functions which have been 



202 THE shepherd's manual. 

already explained, produces what is known as blood diseases, or 
diseases originating in and communicated to various organs by 
the blood. These may be classified as follows : 

1. Diseases arising from an impaired, increased, or arrested 
function, or process, viz: rheumatism, plethora, anaemia, scrofula, 
dropsy. 

2. Diseases called enzobiic because arising from animal poisons, 
originating either within the subject, or communicated by the same 
poisons originating in other animals, viz : influenza, dysentery, 
red-water, heaving or after pains, navel-ill in lambs, black-leg or 
quarter-ill or anthrax fever. 

3. Diseases arising from animal poisons of unknown origin, and 
which are highly contagious, and freely communicated from one 
subject to another, hence called epizootic diseases, viz : Epizootic 
aphtha, small pox. 

Fortunately these diseases so fatal in their operation, and so un- 
controllable in their course, are easily prevented by proper precau- 
tion and ordinary hygienic or sanitary measures. Also in the salt, 
sulphite of soda, we have a valuable remedy against those ferments 
which are the active agents in the majority of blood diseases. 

Rheumatism. — This disease is attended with considerable fever, 
constitutional disturbance, and the presence of acid matters in the 
blood. It affects the serous membrane, as the coverings of the 
joints, the substance of the tendons and ligaments, the enveloping 
membranes of the heart, lungs, spinal marrow, bones, muscles, and 
the brain. As it has a disposition to change its locality almost in- 
stantaneously, and to pass from one joint to another, or one part 
to another, (a process known as metastatis), and affects all these 
important parts of the body, the seriousness of the disease is evi- 
dent. It consists in a peculiar inflammation of the parts affected 
which causes acute pain when they are called into action. When 
it passes from the acute to the chronic state, it causes serious 
changes in the structure of the joints affected. Its symptoms are 
general uneasiness and stiffness, a diminished or capricious appe- 
tite, and sometimes, suspended rumination. The dung is hard and 
scanty, and the urine is high colored and deficient in quantity. 
One of the joints is found hot and swollen; in an hour or two 
■ this is relieved, and another is found affected. It generally attacks 
in spring those animals which have been half starved or exposed 
to cold or damp during the winter. Rams, which have been over- 
worked the previous season, are often affected. Young ewes are 
rarely troubled with it. If not remedied by proper treatment, the 



DISEASES OF THE BLOOD. 203 

animal suflFers from continued fever, general prostration, severe 
pain and emaciation, and eventually dies miserably. The treat- 
ment consists of a moderate purgative at first, such as : 

Epsom Salts 3 ounces. 

Spirit of Nitrous Ether 4 drains. 

Ginger 1 dram. 

to be followed by 

Sulphate of Potash 3 drams. 

Sulphuric Acid 20 drops. 

Water V* pint. 

to be given dissolved in water night and morning. Protection 
from cold and damp, and soft, laxative food are required. Lin- 
seed-meal, either solid or made into gruel, ic a useful addition to 
the food. As this disease is apt to become chronic, the patient 
should be fitted for the butcher as soon as possible. A rheumatic 
ram will beget rheumatic lambs. 

Plethora consists in a too rapid production of blood, by which 
the system is engorged, and important organs become congested. 
It is caused by over-feeding with rich albuminous food, and is 
counteracted by a simple purgative, or bleeding from a vein on the 
face or the jugular. Its effects appear in a flushed condition of 
the visible membranes, labored breathing, staggering and sleepi- 
ness. It never occurs except in animals in high condition, such as 
those prepared for exhibition, and which in case of over fatigue, 
or excessively hot and damp weather, suffer greatly, and sometimes 
fatally, from engorgement of the vessels of the lungs or brain, or 
both. 

Anmrnia or Pining.— This term, "the bloodless condition," in- 
dicates the nature of the disease. There is a condition to which 
sheep may be brought by the effects of dysentery, or by parasites 
in the lungs or intestines, which much resembles this disease. But 
there is an abnormal state of the blood caused by imperfect nutri- 
tion, which is in itself a disease, and not a symptom. When from 
continued wet weather the pasture becomes rank and watery, the, 
flock appears at first in an excellent and thrifty state, but in » 
few days the animals are found lying listless, with drooping heads 
and ears, watery eyes, and the expression of the face miserable 
and painful. A few days afterwards the skin is tightly drawn, the 
wool becomes of a peculiar bluish cast, the skin beneath of a 
pearly white color, the eyes arc also of a pearly bloodless appear- 
ance, and death is busy in the flock. On dry, rich clover pastures 
the same effects are sometimes experienced. The disease never 
appears on steep, rocky hill sides, where the pasturage is short and 



;;i04 THE shepherd's manual. 

sweet, nor on those pastures -wliich are scant, but yet nutritious, 
and intermixed with coarse herbage ; nor on lauds that are abun- 
dantly supplied with lime. It is impossible to know beforehand 
whether the pasture will produce this effect or not, as it seems 
most probable that the geological character of the soil has most to 
do with it. But when ouce a farm, a pasture, or a field, is found 
to induce this ailment, sheep keeping may be abandoned upon 
it, unless the flock can be immediately changed to some other part 
of it where it will thrive. A change from a pasture field to a corn 
field, where the picking amongst the hills furnished but scanty 
feed, has been found to produce an immediate change for the bet- 
ter. No treatment, other than a change of locality, can be indi- 
cated, and if the farm does not supply this, the flock must be dis- 
posed of or removed. The disease unfortunately is not well un- 
derstood, for it is sometimes found very destructive to lambs and 
yearlings, which are chiefly afl'ectcd by it. It is frequently 
confounded with a parasitical disease hereinafter referred to, but 
a post-mortem cxmiination of a subject will easily identify it as 
being different from it as shown by the absence of parasites in the 
stomach, lungs, or air-passages. An adequate supply of supple- 
mentary food would of course act as a remedy, but the cost of 
this would defeat its object and render the flock unprofitable. 

Scrofulri — Tuberculosis. — This disease is almost surely fatal in 
course of time, although at first the sheep subject to it may be 
brought, by proper treatment, into condition for the butcher. It 
is a question, however, if the flesh of scrofulous animals can be 
safely consumed as food, but yet many such go yearly to the 
butchers to be thus disposed of. It would certainly seem that the 
use of such animals as food should be carefully avoided, and the 
sale of their flesh prevented as injurious to the public health, for 
no taint is more readily conveyed to the system than scrofula. It 
is supposed to consist of a diseased condition of the blood, by 
which the l3anph, or white, serous, uncolored portion of it is unfit- 
ted to nourish properly the tissues of the body and to be built up 
into organized matter. Lest the accumulation of this imperfect 
blood should embarras the system, it is deposited in various parts 
where it is productive of least inconvenience, and the nutrition of. 
the body goes on, as well as it may, with the remainder of the 
blood tlius separated from the useless and injurious portion. But 
it is frequently the case that there is not suflTicient left to supply 
the waste of the tissues, and a gradual falling off in condition oc- 
curs. The symptoms of ''consumption," a very significant term, 
as the chief organs are slowly consumed, then appear. The pulsa- 



ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 205 

tions of the heart are loud, so as to be heard on applying the ear 
to the ribs ; the pulse is feeble, the appetite irregular, and a slight 
cough exists, caused by the efforts to throw off the accumulating 
and offending matter from the lungs. In time, the glands of the 
body become loaded with the deposited matter ; those of the throat 
and neck, the parotid and submaxillary, being most commonly 
and extensively affected, and greatly swollen. The symptoms 
gradually increase in intensity, and there is much fever and ema- 
ciation, with discharge from the nose and eyes. The skin is tight 
and pale, and the body appears almost free from blood, as in 
anaemia. At this period there is no help for the animal, for death 
is only a question of time. 

The treatment in the earlier stages is to administer some of the 
preparations of iodine, such as the following : 

Iodide of Potassium 5 grains. 

OR 

Iodide of Iron 10 grains. 

to be finely powdered and mixed with molasses, and placed on the 
root of the tongue, so that it is swallowed. The above dose to be 
given daily. The latter preparation is to be preferred. The 
swellings may be rubbed daily with iodine ointment. No scrofu- 
lous animal should be used for breeding, as the disease is heredi- 
tary. High-bred sheep are the most subject to this disease, and 
" in-and-in breeding" tends greatly to produce it. 

In some localities an enlargement of the glands of the neck, 
similar to the disease known as goitre in mankind^ is frequent 
amongst sheep. This is supposed, doubtless with reason, to be 
caused by the water drank, as in such cases the removal of the 
flock to distant pastures has led to the disappearance of the dis- 
ease. The occurrence of the symptoms above described, however, 
will be sufficient to indicate the true character of scrofula as dis- 
tinguished from any accidental swelling of the glands. 

Dropsy consists in the effusion of a watery or serous fluid in the 
abdomen. It is accompanied with inflammation of the lining 
membrane of the abdomen, the peritoneum, from which the fluid 
is secreted. It is caused by feeding upon rank, succulent, watery 
herbage, by which the blood is insufficiently nourished. A 
change to dry food, or scanty but more nutritious pasture, allevi- 
ates the disease at once. A cure is generally cllected by the use 
of diuretics, aperients, and tonics. The treatment will be the ad- 
ministering of the following, or such others as may produce the 
desired effect : 



206 THE shepherd's makual. 

Nitrate of Potash 1 dram. 

Sulpliate of Soda 1 ounce. 

Ginger 1 dram. 

If the animal is in low condition, the sulphate of soda may be re- 
placed by the following, viz. : 

Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 

ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 

Infliienza.— This disease being due to causes which occur over 
an extended locality, is liable to affect a large number of animals 
at the same time. It is erroneously supposed to be infectious. It 
consists of inflammation of the nasal and bronchial passages, con- 
siderable fever, and great prostration, with general disturbance of 
the system. There is redness and weeping of the eyes, running at 
the nose, cough, great weakness, loss of appetite, indigestion, with 
impaction and sometimes hoven, or distension of the rumen. It 
is prevalent after continued cold and damp weather, and is most 
severe where the ground is low and undrained, or in river bottoms 
or valleys, where morning and evening mists abound. "When 
these conditions occur, the flock should be kept on high, dry 
ground, or in dry, sheltered yards, and carefully protected. Their 
food should be somewhat improved, linseed-oil-cake or corn-meal, 
buckwheat, oats, or rye, being added. A dose of the mixed salt 
and sulphur, (1 quart of salt with 4 oz. of sulphur), should be given, 
and any ailing sheep should be well nursed and treated to warm 
gruel. These precautions will generally prevent a serious attack. 

The treatment, when the disease becomes severe, is to give a 
light dose of some saline purgative, such as 

Epsom Salts V2 ounce. 

Ginger 1 dram. 

in a quarter of a pint of water, or mixed with molasses or honey. 
For a large flock the medicine may be mixed in bulk in proper 
proportions, and a quarter of a pint given to each sheep by means 
of a horn. Those more seriously affected should receive the fol- 
lowing, viz : 

Tincture of Aconite 10 drops. 

Solution of Acetate of Ammonia 1 ounce. 

To be given every four to six hours, decreasing the aconite at each 
dose until five drops only are given, when it may be suspended, 
and only repeated in an emergency 
i^ If the eyes are much inflamed, they should be washed with a 



ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 207 

solution of one grain of sulphate of zinc, and 20 drops of lauda- 
num, in one ounce of water. After recovery, the feed should be 
laxative and nutritious ; bran mashes, and boiled oats, or corn- 
meal mush, with a little powdered ginger or gentian, and a pinch 
of powdered blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper), in each mess, would 
be useful. If not readily taken in the food, this tonic may be 
given for a few days in honey or molasses. Shelter is absolutely 
necessary during treatment and recovery. 

Dysentery may be distinguished from diarrhea by its more se- 
vere symptoms, there being much fever ; the dung is mixed with 
blood and mucus, has a fetid smell, is discharged frequently, and 
is generally in hard lumps and scanty ; it is also voided with pain, 
and the sheep arches its back and moans in its passages. The 
wool feels harsh, and after a short time may be pulled off in hand- 
fuls. Sudden changes of pasture, from poor to rich, or from rich 
to poor ; dry, indigestible food ; scanty or impure water ; severely 
hot and damp weather sucli as produces rust in grain, and neglect- 
ed diarrhea, are the chief causes. Where large flocks are kept on 
extensive ranges, the best course is to remove to some other pas- 
ture, where the water is good, the ground high and dry, and other 
favorable conditions abound. The treatment proper for this dis- 
ease is to give a laxative in the first instance, as follows : 

Linseed-oil . . 2 ounces. 

Powdered Opium 2 grains. 

to be given in linseed tea or oat-meal gruel. The linseed or oat- 
meal should be continued several times during the next twenty- 
four hours, both as nutriment and for its soothing qualities. The 
next day, and for several days, the opium should be repeated with 
one dram of ginger. An occasional dose of linseed-oil may be 
given if thought necessary. It can do no harm, in any event, if 
given every other day. The effect of a hot sun, in an unshaded 
pasture, is very aggravating to this disease. Sheep suffering from 
it should be kept, if possible, in a cool shed, and separated from 
the rest of the flock. A pasture that has been occupied by such 
sheep will certainly infect others that may feed upon it during 
warm weather, the dung conveying the poison to the herbage. 

Red-Water. — When sheep are suffered to pasture upon succulent 
green crops, such as rape, mustard, or turnips, late in the fall or 
in the early winter, and the fodder is covered with hoar frost or 
sleet, or when they are forced to scrape their food from beneath 
the snow, swallowing a large portion of snow with their food, or 
when the stock water is drawn from filthy ponds or sloughs, they 



208 THE shepherd's makual. 

are subject to a peculiar disorder wliich often affects the majority 
of the flock quite suddenly, and is known as red-water. In this 
country this disease is rare, being known chiefly in the south-west 
and west, along with the last mentioned disease and some other 
disorders originating from exposure and unwholesome food or 
water, under the general name of murrain. The symptoms of 
this disease agree with those of a so-called " unknown and new 
disease" affecting sheep in the west, which has been described 
recently by correspondents of the Agricultural Department at 
Washington. The sheep affected appear dull and stupid, and 
stagger, carrying the head upon one side, the eyes are staring, and 
sometimes blind, and the bowels are obstinately costive. They 
die in a few hours. When opened the belly of the sheep is found 
filled with a red fluid wrongly supposed to be blood. There is 
also general congestion of the principal organs. 

As a preventive, the use of salt is recommended, and a table- 
spoonful of pine tar given to each sheep every ten days has been 
found useful. A pound of Epsom salts dissolved m water with 
two oz. of ground ginger, may be given to every ten sheep. The 
simple removal of the causes and a brisk purgative or diuretic 
would doubtless lead to a recovery if given in time. When 
inflammation occurs from neglect, the bowels become affected, and 
death is rapid. The peculiar nature of the sheep makes treatment 
at this stage almost hopeless, but if it is attempted, that prescribed 
for inflammation of the bowels would be proper. 

After-Pains in Ewes^ or parturient apoplexy, arises in conse- 
quence of a feverish condition at the time of lambing. It oc- 
curs about the second or third day, and its presence is shown by 
panting, straining, heaving of the flanks, a staring look, scanty 
and high colored and strong smelling urine, costiveness, and swell- 
ing and redness of the external hinder parts, which finally be- 
come purple and black. After death the whole system is con- 
gested, and the veins filled with black blood ; the uterus or womb, 
is charged with pus, the absorption of which poisoning the blood, 
is the cause of death. This disease is easily prevented by reduc- 
ing the condition of the ewes when it can safely be done. The 
safe time is some weeks before lambing, when a gentle purgative 
should be given and the food gradually reduced. A bran mash 
with 15 grains of saltpeter may be given daily for a few days. A 
very gradual course of depletion only should be adopted. If, 
after lambing, trouble is anticipated, the appearance of the ewe 
should be closely watched. If the pains occur, the following 
sedative should be given at once : 



ENZOOTIC DISEASES. 209 

Camphor i/a dram. 

Laudanum 60 drops. 

These are mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue ; the 
dose may be increased one-fourth for large ewes when the pains 
are excessive. One ounce of solution of acetate of ammonia may 
be given four hours afterwards, and repeated twice at equal inter- 
vals. If a fetid discharge takes place from the vdgina, a solution 
of one dram of chloride of lime to a pint of warm water may be 
injected. The food of the ewe should consist principally of infu- 
sions of linseed or oat-meal gruel. Bleeding is injurious, as are 
also violent purgatives. 

Black Leg^ Quarter Ml, or Anthrax fever, is known as the 
*' black spauW of the English shepherds, the ckarbon of the 
French, and as one of the " murrains " of our western states, 
where it is most frequent in this country. It affects young and 
thrifty sheep, and is rarely found amongst old or poor stock. It 
appears in the spring or early summer, and also in the fall months ; 
and mostly in wet seasons, when the pasture, under the fervid heat 
of the sun and unusual moisture, grows luxuriantly. Then the 
sheep, with vigorous appetite, gorge themselves to repletion, the 
digestive organs are overtaxed, the blood is disorganized, and be- 
fore any trouble is suspected, the sheep drop and suddenly die. 
When the carcasses are examined, and the vrool which leaves the 
skin at the least touch, is removed, the body is found to be swollen 
and blackened in large patches, chiefly on the forequarter, the 
flank, or the hindquarter. Air is gathered beneath the skin, and 
on opening the body, it is found decomposed and filled with black 
blood. If the flock is then observed, some will be found lame 
and limping, and on examination the sides or quarters will be 
found swollen, and when the hand is passed over these spots, the 
wool readily comes off", and a crackling sound is heard from the 
motion of the air or gas collected beneath the skin. The mouth 
and tongue are found to be inflamed and blistered, and the eyes 
red. The urine is dark, the bowels constipated, and the dung 
when discharged is bloody. By and by the animals are unable to 
stand, and fall upon the side, stretch out the limbs, and protrude 
the tongue ; the belly is swollen, and in a few hours the sheep is 
dead. The disease is much worse in rich bottom lands, or moist, 
black soils, and rarely appears on hilly ground, or gravelly, 
dry soils. To prevent this disorder, it is only necessary to pre- 
vent the causes, to ensure regular feeding, and avoid' sudden 
changes from poor to rich food or the reverse. The treatment 



210 THE SHEPHEKD'S MAKUAI. 

should be an immediate purgative. The following may be given 
in oat-meal gruel or any other thick mucilaginous Hquid : 

Sulphate of Soda 2 ounces. 

Flowers of Sulphur 1 ounce. * 

Powdered Myrrh 1 scruple. 

A teaspoonful of spirits of nitrous ether in a pmt of water may be 
given in six hours afterwards. If taken at the commencement of 
the symptoms, this treatment will probably be effective, but if 
later, the uncertain remedial action of nature alone can be de- 
pended on. 

EPIZOOTIC DISEASES. 

Aphtha^ or "foot and mouth disease," which has grievously 
affected the herds and flocks of Europe, is not unknown in Ameri- 
ca. Fortunately our drier climate, or some other preservative in- 
fluence, has very greatly circumscribed the course of this disease. 
It has appeared in various parts of the country, but only sporadi- 
cally, or in scattered cases, and never yet has it swept over an 
entire district. Nevertheless, no one can be sure that it never will 
so appear, and as an isolated case requires the same treatment as 
any other, it is well that the disease should be described here. It 
is a true blood disease, belonging to a class of eruptive fevers aris- 
ing from a poisoning of the blood, and is highly contagious under 
favoring circumstances. It affects alike cattle, sheep, pigs, hares, 
and rabbits. It appears as an eruption of watery blisters upon the 
lips and tongue, and between and around the hoofs. The first 
symptoms are a fit of shivering, succeeded hj fever, cough, and an 
increased pulse. This is succeeded by a failing of the appetite, 
tenderness over the loins, flow of saliva from the mouth, and 
grinding of the jaws. Blisters, small and large, appear on the 
mouth and tongue, which break and become raw, causing great 
pain. The feet are swollen and also covered with blisters, which 
break and become sore, causing the animal to walk with difficulty 
and shake its feet or kick or lie down persistently. In from ten 
to fifteen days the disease runs its course, in favorable circum- 
stances, and the animal recovers gradually, and is never affected 
afterwards. Otherwise the symptoms increase in severity, the 
sheep lose condition rapidly, from inability to eat or move about ; 
the hoofs are sloughed off, and sometimes even the bones of the 
feet are cast off, leaving only a stump. In-lamb ewes when 
affected, abort. It is considered, where this disease is virulent, 
that the cheapest and most effective plan is to stamp it out by the 



SHEEP POX. 211 

slaughter and burial of every infected animal, and the removal of 
those that are well. In the simple form, a single brisk purgative, 
such as two ounces of Epsom salts, with a small quantity of gin- 
ger, generally results in a cure ; to repeat the dose is dangerous. 
The mouth should be washed in the following solution twice a day : 

Alum in powder } o^pce. 

Tincture of MyiTh 1 fluid ounce. 

Water 1 ^^^rt. 

The feet, if affected, should be washed with soap and water, or 
with a weak solution of sulphate of copper, then dressed with car- 
bolic ointment ; and afterwards bound up in a cloth so as to keep 
sand or dirt from irritating the sensitive surfaces. Sulphur should 
be burned in the sheds as a disinfectant and purifier, and the drink- 
ing water should be acidulated with one dram of aromatic sul- 
phuric acid to a gallon of water. All sick animals should be 
isolated. 

8heep Pox, or variola, is a formidable and fatal disease, which is 
very frequent in the central and eastern parts of Europe, and has 
recently been introduced into England by means of importations 
of infected sheep. Although unknown in its severe type in this 
country, yet we have no security against its introduction at any 
day. It is recorded in a German publication that on one occasion 
every sheep in a whole district was swept off by this disorder, the 
sheep dying without any apparent reason, as though they had 
been poisoned. The only known preventive is artificial inocula- 
tion by means of lymph taken from one of the mildest cases. 
These communicated cases are exceedingly mild. The practice of 
housing sheep is very productive of this disease, and it is when 
sheep are kept in small flocks and well supplied with fresh air and 
general good care that the disease makes no headway. Whenever 
our flocks shall be overcrowded, and poorly cared for, this disease 
may be apprehended. Sheep-pox is not identical with the human 
small-pox, but is yet of the same type, produced by the same 
causes, has very similar characteristics, and is equally contagious. 
It cannot, like that of the cow, be communicated to mankind, nor 
to other animals than sheep, even by inoculation, and belongs ex- 
clusively to them. It is a true blood poison, caused originally by 
the absorption of impure matter into the blood, probably through 
the lungs, and the course of the disease is an effort of nature to 
throw off the poison by the eruptions which appear on the skin. 
There is a period of incubation of the disease, which lasts nine 
to eleven days after infection, and during which no symptoms 
whatever appear. After this the sheep sicken, refuse food, and 



212 THE shepherd's manual. 

suflFer from quickened breathing, a hot, dry skin, an unquenchable 
thirst, redness of the eyes, and a discharge from the nostrils. 
At this period the eruption occurs on the body just as in the hu- 
man small-pox. The bare skin under the arm-pits shows the first 
indications of the eruption. Pustules or pimples surrounded with 
a red ring, (the areola), appear, and gradually after three days, 
come to a head, and take on a white appearance. It is at this 
stage of the disease that the matter is collected and preserved for 
the purposes of inoculation. The symptoms decrease at this stage 
and the sheep improve. The pustules dry up and form scales or 
scabs which fall off and lea^e m their places "pits" or marks. 
But it may be that these pimples run together or become " conflu- 
ent" and ulcerate. If this happens, the sheep almost invariably 
die. Otherwise the recovery is rapid. 

Treatment by medicine is entirely unavailing. Good nursing 
of the patients, and the use of sustaining stimulants with laxative 
and demulcent food includes all that can be done. Linseed-meal, 
rice-meal, and oat-meal, made into drinks, and given warm, with a 
small quantity of sugar, or molasses and ginger, will be sufficient 
in the shape of food. Pure soft water made slightly warm, and 
acidulated with a few drops of aromatic sulphuric acid, should be 
given for drink. 

Hopeless cases should be ended at once. If at the last stage the 
symptoms become worse, and the pimples, instead of becoming 
brown and drying up, ulcerate, and run together in chains, the 
animal should be killed and buried in a deep pit with plenty of 
lime thrown on the carcass. Every portion of the dead animal 
will convey infection, and in no case should the wool be taken 
from it, unless it be at once tub- washed in boiling hot soap-suds. 

On the appearance of the disease in a neighborhood, the unaf- 
fected sheep should be inoculated. A quantity of the matter from 
the white pimples is kept in bottles and diluted with w^ater to the 
consistency of cream. A needle mounted in a wooden handle — 
a shoemaker's curved awl will answer the purpose excellently — 
is dipped into the fluid and is thrust beneath the skin of the fleshy 
part of the tail. This rarely fails to communicate the disease 
which is so slight as seldom to interfere with the feeding of the 
flock. In a paper published in the Journal of the Koyal Agricul- 
tural Society of England, Vol. XXV, Part 2, 1864, w^ritten by a 
gentleman w^ho had had charge of flocks of Merinos varying from 
a few thousand up to twenty-five thousand, in Russia, and who 
always practiced inoculation, the author states that although the 
sheep under his charge were constantly exposed to contagion 



DISEASES OF THE BLADDER. 213 

from neighboring flocks, in which thousands died from neglect of 
this precaution, yet lie nemr lost a single adult animal from the dis- 
ease. In those countries where the disease prevails, every shep- 
herd has an inoculating needle amongst the implements of his 
profession. 

As we are as yet exempt from this disease, and as it is readily 
communicated by contact with the skin or fleece of a diseased 
sheep, and with the present rapid communication between this 
country and Europe, an animal might easily reach here within its 
period of incubation, constant watchfulness should be exerted 
to prevent its importation. That we shall always be exempt, is 
too much to reasonably hope for. 

DISEASES OF THE URINARY ORGANS. 

The urine of a healthy sheep is alkaline. Under some circum- 
stances the urine becomes acid. This abnormal condition pro- 
duces a disordered condition of the highly sensitive urinary or- 
gans. If the flow of the urine is obstructed, it is absorbed into 
the circulation, and a variet}^ of diseases are produced, all of 
which have one constant distinguishing symptom, viz : the strong- 
smell of urine given out by the other secretions of the system, but 
especially by the secretions of the skin. The blood is poisoned 
by the absorption of the matters which the urine should have car- 
ried off, and a high condition of fever is consequently produced. 
Male animals are more frequently affected than females, by reason 
of the peculiar structure and length of the urinary canal, already 
described. Fattening animals are especially subject to urinary 
disorders, and such need close inspection and great care. 

Inflammation of the Bladder is the most frequent of the urinary 
diseases. Feeding upon second growth clover, which often con- 
tain lobelia, St. John's-wort, rag weed, and other irritating plants ; 
or upon excessive quantities of corn- meal, or drinking hard wa- 
ter, are the chief causes. The acid and consequently irritating 
character of the urine inflames the inner coats of the bladder. The 
inflammation spreads to the muscular substance around the neck 
of the bladder, and this is contracted, closing the opening. 

Retention of Urine is therefore the direct consequence, and this 
involves the serious complications alreadj^ mentioned. The symp- 
toms are uneasiness, constant lifting the hind feet and stamping 
with them, spreading them out and straining in the endeavor to 
void urine. As the attempt is abandoned, the animal moans in 
pain. There is general disturbance of the system, fever, and costive- 



214 THE shepherd's manual. 

ness. The remedy is to bleed copiously from the neck and to 
give the following to a large animal. 

Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 

Laudanum. 2 drams. 

For smaller animals the dose should be reduced proportionately. 
If there is no improvement the second day, the bleeding should be 
repeated from the other side of the neck, and one ounce of linseed 
oil be given daily until relief is procured. Diuretics and saline 
purgatives should be avoided. After improvement the food should 
be light, and infusions of linseed-meal or of gum arable, would be 
useful. 

Sediment in the Urinary Canal. — Highly fed sheep, or those 
fed on dry pastures, which are deficient in water, or those care- 
lessly denied a full supply of water in winter, when they are fed 
grain in less or greater quantities — rams and wethers especially — 
are those which are subject to this disorder. Females, from the 
large capacity of the canal, are never, or very rarely, affected. But 
in male animals the peculiar appendage, called the vermiform, or 
■worm-like appendage, through which the canal finds its exit, be- 
ing very small, an easy obstruction is offered to the passage and 
discharge of any sandy or muddy deposit of the urine. Small 
stony concretions are often discovered attached to the wool or 
hairs around the vent on the belly of the sheep. When these are 
noticed, extra care should be exercised to give abundant water by 
which the deposit may be dissolved and carried away. When the 
deposits have been arrested in this narrow passage, the urine is 
seen to pass drop by drop and the animal exhibits great pain and 
uneasiness. All the symptoms of retention of wine then appear. 
The treatment is to place the animal on his rump and draw the 
penis out of the sheath. It will be found inflamed and tender. 
It should be fomented with warm water, and the urethra or canal 
below it gently pressed with the fingers to force out the urine and 
with it the sediment. If this is successful even in part, some 
sweet-oil should be applied to the parts, and a rather large dose 
of linseed-oil be administered along with an antispasmodic to act 
on the neek of the bladder, viz : 

Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 

Extract of Belladonna 10 grains. 

On the following day the urethra should be again examined, and 
the manipulation be again repeated. One dram of Carbonate of 
Potash should then be given, dissolved in water, three times 
a day. If fever is present, the belladonna may be repeated, 
but only in case of urgency. No saline purgatives are to be 



DISEASES OF THE URIN'ARY ORGAiq-S. 215 

given in affections of the bladder. If the sediment cannot be passed, 
it will be necessary to remove it by an operation. A lengthwise in- 
cision is made, with a small sharp knife blade, at the junction of 
the vermiform appendage with the urethra, on the lower surface, 
and the stones or gravel are removed by pressure. It may be dis- 
covered in this manner, that the obstructions exist all along the 
urethra, in which case there is no hope of recovery, and the ani- 
mal may be slaughtered. In case of wethers the vermiform 
appendage of the penis may be cut off at once. In rams it may be 
saved if possible, although it is not absolutely necessary for suc- 
cessful stock getting. It may be well, however, to be on the safe 
side, and save the part out of respect to the generally accepted be- 
lief that it is needful. It is known, however, that many rams 
which had lost the part by this operation, did not lose their useful- 
ness in consequence. 

Calculi^ or stone in the bladder. For this disease there is no 
remedy, and if after the fact has been ascertained by the previously 
described operation, or in any other way, the animal may be killed. 

Clap or Oonorrhea. — This disease affects the sheath and penis 
of the ram The first symptoms are very similar to those of sedi- 
ment in the urethra. There is great pain in urinating, and the 
urine comes by a few drops at a time. In course of time a white 
acrid discharge escapes, and this, in case of neglect causes ulceration, 
which may destroy the organ. Rams thus affected should not be 
used, as the disease is contagious, and the symptoms are aggrava- 
ted. The causes are excessive work and want of cleanliness. The 
treatment consists of turning the animal on its back, withdrawing 
the penis gently, holding it with a soft linen cloth wetted with the 
lotion mentioned below, until all the diseased parts are seen. 
The organ is then bathed and washed thoroughly with the follow- 
ing lotion, viz : 

Spirits of Camphor 4 ounces. 

Sugar of Lead 1 ounce. 

Sulphate of Zinc 2 ounces. 

Water 1 quart. 

Mix and bottle for use. If any of the ewes have become diseased 
by contact with a diseased ram, a soft linen cloth may be wrapped 
around the finger, dipped in the solution, and inserted in the parts 
until they are thoroughly washed. Or a portion may be injected 
with a syringe. A daily dressing should be given until a cure 
commences, afterwards twice a week will be sufiicient. One ounce 
of linseed oil should be given every other day until the mine 
passes freely. The food should be laxative, and nothing stimulat- 



216 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



ing should be given until a cure is effected. Copious demulcent 
drinks should be given, such as infusions of linseed, oat-meal, or 
gum arable. 

DISEASES OF THE BRAIN. 



Water on the Brain^ {Hydrocephalus). — This is a constitutional 
fault which is present in the ewe, or the ram, used in breeding. It 
exists in the lamb at birth, and the head is generally so unnatur- 
ally enlarged that it is killed as not worth raising, or it dies before 
it has arrived at maturity. If there are many cases in a flock, the 
ram should be changed ; if the ewes are at fault, they should be 
disposed of by feeding for the butcher. There is no cure, and an 
animal so deformed is a disagreeable object at the best, and it 
should be destroyed at birth. 

Apoplexy — Staggers. — Some of the high-bred sheep, the Leices- 
ters more especially, as well as some native sheep that have been 
poorly kept and fed, are subject to occasional attacks of giddiness 
and blindness, in which they stagger about and run against walls, 
fences, or other obstructions, evidently unable to see. The attack 
comes on suddenly, the sheep stops and stands staggering, or still 

moves on its former course 
with eyes dilated and prom- 
inent, but unconscious of 
impediments. The appear- 
ance of the eyes and mem- 
branes shows that the vessels 
of the head are full of blood, 
and post-mortem examina- 
tions have shown the brain to 
be highly congested, and some- 
times the vessels ruptured. 
Pressure of blood on the brain 
Plethora from continued high 
feeding, or from indigestion or other disturbance of the condition 
of the digestive organs, produces this determination of blood to 
the headf Removal of the causes, depletion of high conditioned 
animals, by saline purgatives, or the restoration of the tone of poor 
conditioned ones by good food and tonics, tend to a cure. Bleed- 
ing from the facial vein (a, fig. 76), is often useful in extreme cases. 
Inflammation of the Brain {Phreniiis).— The causes which pro- 
duce apoplexy, if long continued, result in inflammation of the 
brain, and this produces frenzy. The aflected animals are very 




76.— THE FACIAL VEIN. 



is the cause of these symptoms. 



DISEA.SES OF THE BRAIK AND NERVES. 217 

violent, dashing hither and thither regardless of danger or damage 
to themselves. Lambs thus affected leap and throw themselves 
about as if in violent play, until they fall and die in convulsions. 
The only remedy is copious bleeding from the neck, and active 
purging with salts. In this case no accompanying stimulant is 
needed, and for a full-grown animal, the dose may be increased 
one-half above the usual quantity. There is always congestion of 
the brain accompanying this disease, and treatment must be in- 
stant, lest in the muscular excitement the vessels of the brain be 
ruptured and sudden death ensue. 

Paralysis — Trembles. — This disease is a different manifestation 
of the effects of pressure of blood upon the brain from the two 
diseases previously described. In this disease, in addition to the 
base of the brain, the spinal marrow and the nervous system con- 
nected therewith are affected, the congestion occupying a consid- 
erable portion of the vertebral canal. Its effects are varied. In 
some cases the animal loses the power over some of its limbs ; the 
hinder half of the bodies of some are lendered incapable of mo- 
tion ; in others, the sheep stands, trembles violentl}", with the 
head drawn back or to one side, the jaws are tightly closed, and 
froth is forced through the teeth and lips ; the breathing is hur- 
ried, and the fit which lasts for a short time, recurs at short inter- 
vals. At other times the animal, which may appear perfectly 
well, will suddenly spring from the ground, scream, and fall dead. 
Others will fall deprived of motion, and remain sprawling, with 
limbs stretched out, until they die of starvation. The power of 
swallowing is gone, and there is generally very great difficulty of 
breathing in consequence of the affection of the pneumo-gastric 
nerve and the resulting paralysis or spasmodic condition of the 
muscles of the throat and chest. Animals in poor condition sub- 
jected to cold and exposure, suffer mostly from this peculiar form 
of disease. 

The treatment proper to these varied cases, depends upon 
whether the patient is in the active or collapsed condition. On 
the first attack, bleeding from the facial vein is the proper remedy, 
and generally gives immediate relief. But after the animal has 
passed through this stage, a condition of collapse follows, and in- 
stead of depletion, the opposite course is necessary to be taken, 
ionics and stimulants are then needed. Warm milk or gruel, 
sweetened and mixed with ginger, followed by a teaspoonful of 
aromatic spirits of ammonia, or one scruple of carbonate of ammo- 
nia, mixed with gum water of cold linseed tea, should be given. 
If the bowels are constipated, a dose of linseed-oil (but no salts), 

10 



218 THE shepherd's makual. 

should be given. The body may be swathed in a rag dipped in 
hot water, to which an ounce of ammonia water has been added. 
On recovery, the food should be generally, improved in character, 
and a daily dose of one scruple of sulphate of copper may be 
given with some meal, or mixed with molasses and placed on the 
tongue. This disease is the most frequent one of the kind from 
which our flocks suffer. 

Epilepsy is a very similar disease to the preceding. It occurs 
chiefly in young or poor sheep which are turned out to feed early 
in the morning when the herbage is covered with hoar-frost or 
snow. The rumen being chilled, causes the blood to determine to 
the brain, and the animal becomes convulsed. No treatment can 
avail anything, but prevention is everything. 

Lockjaw^ which is a violent excitement of the nervous system, 
sometimes occurs in consequence of exposure to wet and cold, and 
sometimes in consequence of injury to the nerves through the vio- 
lent twisting of the spermatic cord and vessels in the operation of 
castration. The jaws are closed, but can be moved laterally, and 
there is grinding of the teeth ; the head is bent round, the neck 
twisted, and one or more of the limbs are rigid. In this condition 
the sheep may remain a day and then die, or if it remain longer it 
may recover. A warm bath, if the sheep is not too large, is use- 
ful ; and the animal should be kept warm and in a quiet place. A 
dose of two ounces of Epsom sails should be given, followed by 
two drams of laudanum after two hours. Warm gruel, with a 
quarter of an ounce of ginger, should be given two or three times 
a day. Quiet and warmth are indispensable to a cure. 

Palsy. — This disease consists in a total suspension of action in 
the nervous system, generally in consequence of exposure to se- 
vere cold and wet. Lambs that are thoroughly chilled by cold 
rain and winds, or newly shorn sheep similarly exposed, are the 
most frequent subjects. Ewes having been exhausted by pro- 
tracted labor, or by abortion ; or newly dropped winter lambs, that 
have been neglected, also suffer from it. Heavy feeding on man- 
gels or watery roots has been known to produce it, and it has 
been stated recently that roots grown upon land that has been 
heavily dressed with superphosphate of lime, have produced this 
complaint in several English flocks. It is very questionable if the 
phosphate has any direct agency in producing it. The sheep suf- 
fering from it lie totally helpless, the whole body being incapable 
of movement, the respiration is almost stopped, and the eye is 
dead looking and lifeless, the eyelids quivering occasionally. 



PAEASITICAL DISEASES. '219 

The treatment consists in the application of warmth, and a 

stimulant such as mustard or ammonia and sweet-oil rubbed on 

the brisket and the spine. The following dose may be given twice 

a day, viz : 

Spirits of Nitrous Ether 2 drams. 

Powdered Ginger 1 " 

" Gentian 1 " 

Warm drinks should be given at short intervals. If the animal is 

purged, the chalk mixture prescribed for diarrhea should be given. 

If the palsy is not relieved by this treatment, the following may 

be given : 

Tincture of Nux Vomica 4 drops. 

OR 
Strychnine V4 grain. 

diffused in a quarter of a pint of linseed gruel, and the dose slightly 
increased, afterwards repeated. In the case of a valuable animal, 
this potent medicine should be given with great care, or only by a 
veterinary surgeon. 

PARASITICAL DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. 

Parasites which infest animals are divided into two classes, in- 
ternal parasites called entozoa, and externa,! ones which are called 
epizoa. Since the natural history of microscopic animals and 
those which undergo changes only to be discovered by the use of 
the microscope, has become better known, much in regard to some 
peculiar diseases of animals, is now understood. Formerly it was 
believed that spontaneous generation of minute animalculae could 
occur, and that parasites were " bred " by diseased matter. What 
was then supposed to be the consequence of certain diseased con- 
ditions is now known to be the cause of them, and the whole subject 
of parasitical disease is in course of satisfactory explanation. But 
as yet there is much to learn, and the investigation of the subject 
is surrounded with diflSculties. The most important of all the in- 
ternal parasites which injuriously affect the sheep is undoubtedly 
that known as 

Tlie Liver Fluke, the distoma hepaticum of Rudclphi, or the 
fasciola hepatica of Linnaeus, which inhabits the gall bladder and 
ducts, and penetrates the substance of the liver. Its presence 
in this organ produces disorder of its functions and a diseased con- 
dition of the animal known as 

TJie Hot, or tlie Liver Hot. — This disease has been the most 
dreaded by the shepherd for centuries past. It has carried off 



220 



THE SHEPHERD S MANTAL. 




Fig. 77. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH 
BOT. 



millions of sheep in a single year, in Australia and South America, 
and is very prevalent in Europe. In 1830 two million sheep died 
in England of this disease. It exists in America both in imported 
sheep and the native flocks, and thousands die every year of it 
without their owners having knowledge of the cause. The symp- 
toms of the disease are, however, very marked and signiLcant. In 

the healthy sheep the conjunc- 
tiva, or the membrane which 
covers the eyeball in front, and 
lines the eyelid, is brilliantly 
red ; so much so, that those un- 
used to observe these things 
closely, would suppose the eye 
to be highly inflamed. When 
afiected with the rot, the con- 
junctiva is pale and eyeball 
yellowish. When this sign ap- 
pears, and the sheep is found to 
be ailing, it is certainly infested with flukes. There are other 
symptoms which indicate less certainly this disease, because they 
are found present in other ailments also, but this symptom is pe- 
culiar to this parasite. As the 
disease progresses, dropsy is 
always present, and a wa- 
tery tumor or bag appears 
beneath the lower jaw. The 
skin is pale and bloodless, 
and the wool is dry, harsh, 
ragged, and readily parts 
from the skin. The skin is 
drawn tightly, and the spine 
is arched and prominent, as 
seen in figure 77. The ap- 
petite is irregular, and de- 
praved, and the thu-st excessive. These symptoms increase until 
the sheep dies completely emaciated. 

The fluke is a member of a family of sucking worms (similar to 
the leeches), known as distomae. It is a flat, oval shaped animal 
more thickly conical in front, and has a sucker or mouth. Where 
the thicker part joins the flatter hinder part, there is a second 
sucker upon the underside. In figure 78 are shown the full grown 
flukes as taken from the gall ducts of a sheep, and in figure 79 are 
represented immature flukes from the same animal. The fluke is 





78.— MATURE FLUKES. 



THE LIVER FLUKE. 



221 




Fiff. 79. 



a highly organized animal. It possesses a branched intestinal 
canal and digestive organs, seen at figure 80, and a fully devel- 
oped circulatory system seen at figure 81. These figures are life- 
size. The fluke possesses the power of self-impreg- 
nation should a second individual not be present 
for copulation. It propagates by means of eggs, 
which are produced in great numbers, and which 
pass with the bile into the intestinal canal, from 
whence they are voided with the dung of the sheep. 
The eggs need to be washed by rain or flood into 
stagnant water to become developed. The embryo, covered with 
cilise or arms — the locomotive organs — leaves the shell and swims 
in the water. It is then believed, from our present knowledge of 
its habits, to penetrate the bodies of snails or other amphibious 
molluscs, and thus pass a stage of its existence. These soft-bodied 
molluscs being swallowed by the sheep which graze in low, moist 
pastures, along with the herbage ; the parasites contained in them 
are introduced into the stomach, 
from which they pass by the 
gall ducts, into the liver, and 
thus complete the round of their 
existence. They collect in 
masses, sometimes closely pack- 
ed in the gall ducts, obstruct the 
flow of the gall, and set up 
irritation, and thus produce 
jaundice, by which the mem- 
branes are colored yellow. At 
this first outset of the disease 
the sheep seems to thrive and 
make fat rapidly, but the fat is 
highly colored, especially that of the kidneys and brisket. Some 
English feeders have purposely exposed their sheep to the flukes 
to hasten the fattening. But this stage passed, the structure of 
the liver becomes changed from the irritation and pressure; the 
gall ducts become enlarged into extensive cavities, which are filled 
with flukes and their eggs. The pain thus caused makes the ani- 
mal restless and thin. The partial destruction of the liver, and 
stoppage of its functions, causes diarrhea, dropsy, and the disor- 
ganization of the blood, which constitute the fatal rot. The 
course of this disease is rapid. At the latter end the whole system 
is deranged. The breath is offensive, a deep distressing cough with 
fever racks the animal, the skin is covered with yellowish and 




Tier. 80. 



Fia:. 81. 



232 THE shepherd's manual. 

black patches ; the abdomen enlarges from the accumulated fluid ; 
the animal is very weak, and lies with its head thrust out, solitary 
and separate from its fellows until it dies. On opening the sheep, 
the whole carcass is literally rotten. Yellow serum follows the 
knife everywhere, the abdomen being filled with it. The liver is 
found full of hard spots and ulcers, and the ducts filled with flukes. 
The treatment consists wholly in prevention or in attention at 
the first stages. When the rot has become developed, no medi- 
cine avails anything. It is wholly and surely prevented by keep- 
ing the sheep on dry pastures and away from stagnant water. The 
fluke there can find no development. Low pastures should be 
drained, ponds fenced ofi*, and well water used for drinking pur- 
poses. Hay from low grounds may even communicate this dis- 
ease. When these preventive measures cannot be wholly carried 
out, the sheep should be abundantly supplied with salt, and on 
the first appearance of suspicious symptoms, the following mixture 
should be administered, viz : 

Saltpeter : IV2 ounce. 

Powdered Gino^er 1 " 

Carbonate of Iron (colcothar of vitriol) V2 " 

Salt 1 pound. 

Boiling water 3 quarts. 

The above to be mixed, and when nearly cool, 9 ounces of spirits 
of turpentine are to be added. The whole is bottled in quart bot- 
tles for use, and when administered should be well shaken to mix 
the ingredients thoroughly. 

Infected sheep should be kept from food all night, and on the 
following morning, before feeding, each should receive two ounces 
(a wine-glass full) of the mixture by means of a horn. No food 
should be given for three hours. The medicine is repeated every 
fourth day for two weeks. 

Sheep may live and thrive, and yet carry flukes. How many 
they can tolerate without serious injury, is a question that will 
probably never be satisfactorily answered. It is proper that the 
shepherd should be always on his guard against them, for the 
reason that this animal is now known to be native in this country 
as well as in almost the whole world. Deer, antelopes, and hares 
have been found infested by them. A careful and trustworthy 
naturalist, Mr. Joseph Batty, a member of Prof. Hayden's explor- 
ing expeditions, has discovered over a hundred flukes in the liver 
of one hare in Minnesota. A fluke, of which figure 82 is a draw- 
ing from nature, reduced one-half, was taken by Mr. Batty from 
the liver of a deer in the winter of 1874-5. The liver in question 



THE LUNG THREAD-WORM. 



223 




Fig. 82.— FLUKE 
FROM A DEER. 



was filled with them, and a number of them are now preserved 
in the museum of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. The 
author found them (along with numerous specimens of strongylus 
filaria in the lungs), in the flock of South - 
downs belonging to Koyal Phelps, Esq., of 
Babylon, L. L, and also in his own Cotswold, 
Leicester, and native sheep, which had been 
allowed to pasture occasionally along the banks 
of a stream, and to drink for a whole summer 
at a running spring in which many watercresses 
and other aquatic plants grew. In these cases 
the medicine above prescribed brought about 
an entire cure. 

As the course of the disease is rapidly ex- 
haustive, sheep that are aflfected should be well 
fed witli nutritious and easily digested food ; 
a pint per day, for each sheep, of linseed-oil- 
cake-meal mixed with bran, will be of the 
greatest service on their recovery, or as soon as the appetite returns. 
The Lung Stronyle. — The " lung thread- worm," {strongylus 
filaria)^ lives in the wind-pipe, the bronchial tubes, and the tissues 
of the sheep's lungs. It is a white, thread-like worm, from one 
inch to three inches in length. Its natural history is supposed to 
be as follows. The worms present in the lungs breed and produce 
eggs, which contain fully developed young, wound up in a spiral 
form in a thin shell. These embryos soon leave the shell and 
move about in the tubes, causing great irritation and a secretion of 
mucus, upon which they feed and grow. It is not certainly known 
as yet if the sheep in the violent coughing caused by the irritation 
expels any of the eggs or young worms, and that they then pass a 
portion of their existence in the open air, finding their way into 
the lungs of fresh bearers by the trachea in the passage of the 
food through the mouth or gullet, or from the stomach in the act 
of rumination ; or if the worm completes its whole existence in 
the lungs of its bearer. It is most probable that the former sup- 
position is the true one, as it explains the fact that the worms are 
often found in young lambs in such quantities as to cause suffbca- 
tion. Besides, it is known that flocks which follow other sheep 
upon pastures, or which feed upon fields that have been manured 
with sheeps' dung, have been attacked with this disease. An in- 
teresting case in point is stated by a Pennsylvania correspondent 
of the Country Oenileman of March 25th, 1875. Some ram lambs 
were pastured in a field upon which their dams had been kept the 



224 THE shephekd's mahual. 

previous year, and which had been top-dressed with manure from 
the sheep sheds. Nineteen out of forty of the lambs died. The 
following year twenty-three lambs died, and the post-mortem of the 
physician showed the fact that the larynx and trachea were cov- 
ered on their inner surface " with a frothy mucus, generally white, 
but here and there of a yellowish hue," also in this mucus were 
" several worm-lilie bodies about one-half a line in diameter, and 
from one to two inches in length." Under the microscope these 
proved to be articulates, some of which contained what seemed 
to be ova. A microscopic examination of the mucus showed these 
ova in various stages of development. The worm -like bodies were 
undoubtedly the lung thread-worms under consideration. For 
several years afterwards the lambs which pastured on the top- 
dressed meadows took the disease and died. The symptoms which 
indicate the presence of this worm are a loss of condition, a con- 
stant and severe cough, a dropsical condition, as shown by the 
watery tumor beneath the throat, and a pining and wasting away. 
The skin is pale, and the eyes pearly, and bloodless. After death 
there is no sign of disease, except the presence of the worms in the 
lungs and windpipe, and complete emaciation. The means of 
prevention are obvious. Pastures or meadows should not be top- 
dressed with sheeps' manure unless they are to be plowed and 
sown to grain crops, and if a pasture is found to be infected, it 
should be plowed up and re-sown. All sheep having the charac- 
teristic cough should be fattened and killed. 

The treatment proper in this case is the same as that recom- 
mended for the liver fluke, and the mixture mentioned on page 
222, should be administered as there stated. Turpentine and salt 
are found to be almost sure remedies for internal parasites of all 
kinds, and extra feeding to resist the draft upon the system will be 
useful. 

Hydatids or Bladder - Worms. — The association of the dog with 
the sheep upon farms, is productive of much mischief in addition 
to the vast annual slaughter of the latter occasioned thereby. The 
great majority of dogs are infested with tape-worms. The eggs 
of the tape-worms discharged in the dung of the dog upon fields 
and pastures are swallowed by the sheep with the herbage, and the 
larval state of the worms is developed within their bodies, either in 
the lungs, the abdomen, or the brain, causing disease which is 
often fatal. The larvae of the tape-worm exist in the shape of 
watery bladders, or sacs, which contain the undeveloped worms. 
These peculiar creatures are known as bladder- worms or hydatids. 



HYDATIDS OK TAPE-WORMS. 



225 




One of these occupies the abdominal cavity of the sheep, and is 
called the 
Diving Bladder-wo7'm, Gysticercus UnuicolUs or C. tmnia margina- 
ia. These bladders are often free in the 
abdomen, are sometimes enclosed in the 
fat, and sometimes are attached to the 
liver and intestines. They are pear- 
shaped, and in size from that of a walnut 
to that of a hen's or even a goose's egg. 
These bladders or cysts, when fed to a 
dog, have produced the mature tcenia 
marginata upwards of three feet in length 
in the course of three months. The eggs 
of this tape-worm have been fed to lambs, and have produced the 
hydatid, or bladder-worm, of which hundreds were found in the 
abdomen of some of the lambs, which died soon after receiving 
the eggs. 

Figure 83 is a representation of the Gysticercus tenwicollis, with 
the head turned out- 
wards, and with the 
head contained within 
the neck of the blad- 
der. Another of these 
hydatids is the 

Many-headed Blad- 
der-worm, or Gysticer- 
cus tosnia ecMnococcus, 
— This finds a home 
in the lungs and liver 
of the sheep and other 
ruminants, and also 
infests mankind. Fig- 
ure 84 is an illustra- 
tion of the liver and 
lungs of an infected 
sheep. As many as 
several hundred cysts 
have been taken from 
one sheet) This is a 
most dangerous para- ^^^- 84.-LimGS infected with hydatids. 

site, for if taken into the human stomach, it may produce " bladders" 
in the brain, as it actually has done in well authenticated cases, 
which are certainly fatal. The cysts reproduce themselves by a 




226 



THE SHEPHERD S MANUAL. 



species of budding, and thus rapidly increase and spread through 
the bodies of their bearers. The most common of these hydatids is 
The Brain Bladder-worm, or Gmnurus cerebralis. — This produces 
the common disease known as turnside, or giddiness, in which the 
sheep turns its head to the left or right, and walks round and 
round in a circle in the direction in which the head is turned, 
until it falls giddy and exhausted. The presence of this parasite 
has been discovered in the liver of our gray squirrel, and in rab- 
bits, as well as in numerous sheep in this country. In the sheep 
it is generally found in the brain, although it is not peculiar 
to that organ. It is only there, however, that it produces the 
usual disastrous effects upon the sheep. Figure 85 represents the 





Fig. 85.— HYDATID IN THK BRAIN. Fig. 86.— BRAIN WITH FOUR HYDATIDS 

bram infested with but one hydatid {a) ; in figure 86 it has four of 
them (a, &, c, d). In size they are from that of a pea up to that of a 
hen's egg. The hydatid is a bladder filled with a viscid fluid, and 
covered on its outside surface with marks or oval slits. These 
slits are the spots to which flask-shaped appendages are affixed 
within, and are the openings which lead to the interior of these 
appendages. On examination with a common pocket lens, a por- 
tion of the bladder appears as in figure 87. The appendages are 
the necks and heads of the immature tape-worms, each head hav- 
ing four suckers and a series of hooks which are characteristic of 
the mature creatures, and by which they afterwards attach them- 



HYDATIDS IN^ THE BRAIK. 



227 




E[TDATID3 MAGNIFIED. 



selves to the coats of the intestines, while they suck the juices 
therefrom. These heads increase by a process of budding, and 
often amount to dozens, and sometimes hundreds in number. The 
pressure exerted by these bladders upon the brain, produces the 
peculiar symptoms exhibited, and the act of turning to one side or 
the other, helps to determine the seat of the hydatid in the body 
of the brain, which 
is found to be on 
that side to which 
the sheep turns. 
The natural histo- 
ry of this parasite 
is as follows : 
When the head of 
a sheep, containing 
the bladder-worms 
of this species, is 
devoured by a dog, the larvae are transformed within him into 
tape-worms. This worm {toenia ccentcrus) at maturity, or its eggs, 
being voided by the dog upon the grass of a pasture, are swallowed 
by the sheep, are hatched in its stomach, and penetrate all parts 
of the body, perishing everywhere except in the brain, which is 
its usual habitation. There they develop, remaining dormant, 
until chance favors their round again. Old sheep are rarely 
affected by this parasite, the lambs suffer chiefly from them. One 
infested dog will void thousands of eggs which not only escape 
with the dung, but being attached to the anus, are carried about 
and dropped in a multitude of places. 

To prevent the spread of this parasite, it is necessary only to 
prevent the heads of affected sheep from being devoured by dogs 
or hogs, or to keep dogs from the pastures. The heads of sheep 
dying from the disease should therefore be burned, and not thrown 
out. The treatment of sheep subject to the parasite consists in an 
operation by which the skull is pierced and the bladder punctured, 
when the water in it escapes and is absorbed, leaving the worm to 
perish. The pressure and irritation upon the skull causes some 
absorption of its substance, and a soft spot is caused over the blad- 
der. This may be eisily felt by pressure of the finger. A curved 
awl may then be inserted through the skull and the bladder pierced ; 
or by means of a tubular saw (or trephine), a round piece of bone 
is cut out of the skull, a flap of the skin first being laid back, and 
the bone being lifted, the bladder is laid bare and removed. The 
skin is relaid and held in place by a stitch or plaster, and the 



228 THE shephekd's manual. 

wound lieals. No other remedy than these is safe or certain, and 
these frequently fail. This class of parasites possesses some 
importance to the shepherd, not only from the loss occasioned 
amongst his flock, but from the danger of the results to the 
consumers of mutton. The farmer's or shepherd's own dog may 
be the means of injury to his flock, and he should take means to 
free the dog from the tape- worms by means of proper medicines, 
of which the powdered areca nut is the most efiective, as well as 
to prevent vagrant dogs from stocking his pastures. 

The areca nut is administered as follows. Previously, one scru- 
ple of jalap, for a dog of 20 to 30 pounds in weight, should be ad- 
ministered, and a brisk action of the bowels set up. This may 
also be procured by giving the dog a quantity of butter or any of 
the common purgatives. Immediately afterwards half an ounce 
of the powder of areca nut is to be given in pills or in some ac- 
ceptable food. Some locks of tangled wool dipped in grease or 
melted fat are given at the same time to be swallowed. The 
worm is killed or paralyzed by the areca nut, is entangled in the 
wool, and all together are expelled by the purge. The mass should 
be immediately burned or buried at a perfectly safe depth in the 
ground. Applied to every dog at intervals of three months, this 
treatment will free them from tape-worms, and prevent danger of 
the sheep becoming infested with them. 

Tape-worms^ {tcenia plicata), in the intestines. The sheep them- 
selves are sometimes infested with mature tape-worms. This is 
easily explained by the possibility of the sheep swallowing along 
with their pasture some of the eggs which may have been voided 
by any of the numerous bearers of these worms, both domestica- 
ted and wild. It has been stated that the intestinal tape-worm is 
very rare, if not unknown, in sheep in this country. This would 
seem to be erroneous. A correspondent of the National Live 
Stock Journal of September, 1875, from Missouri, reported his 
lambs all dying of a strange disease in which the first symptom 
was a falling off in condition, followed by a mild diarrhea. This 
occurred in June, and continued up to August, when 30 out of 60 
were dead, and nearly all the remainder were ailing. On exami- 
nation after death, the small intestines were found " packed full 
of tape-worms." This can hardly be a unique case, and we may 
very well conclude that tape-worm in the intestines is one of the 
parasitical diseases that we have to combat. 

Generally the symptoms developed by the presence of tape- 
worms are voracity of appetite, alternating with a refusal of food ; 
loss of condition, desire to swallow earth, stones, sand, or ashes ; 



PARASITES OF THE SKIl^. 229 

the passage of soft dung, mixed with mucus, which becomes 
attached to the vent and tail, causmg a very filthy condition ; and 
the evidence of internal pain. The sheep finally dies greatly ema- 
ciated. There is no means of prevention, as the eggs may be 
dropped by rabbits, squirrels, skunks, and other wild animals 
which frequent the fields. The treatment most efiective is to 
administer turpentine as follows : 

Linseed-oil 3 ounces. 

Spirits of Turpentine V2 to 1 ounce. 

This should be repeated twice a week for two weeks. If this 
is not effective, 3 ounces of the Powdered root of Male Fern 
may be given. The dose to be repeated in one week. In six 
hours after this is administered, a purgative of linseed-oil should 
be given. The food should be of the best kind until the lost con- 
dition is restored. 

Tape-worms in any of their forms of life, affect only young sheep 
and lambs. When sheep attain the age of two years they are safe 
from them, and it is very rare indeed that one older than this be- 
comes infested with them. 

Hair-worms in the Intestines. — A species of " hair-worm" called 
from its peculiar formation tricocephalus, is not uncommon in 
sheep. It infests the stomach and intestines, causing obstinate 
diarrhea, and rapid wasting of flesh. These worms burrow their 
heads into the membrane lining the organs, and suck out the 
juices. The irritation produces diarrhea, which submits to no 
treatment while they remain. A cough is often present along 
with the diarrhea. Other species of worms, of habits identical 
with these, and producing the same injurious effects, also infest 
the sheep, but more particularly lambs and j^earlings. Salt in doses 
of half an ounce, given on alternate days with one dram doses of 
sulphate of iron, the salt being given on one day and the iron the 
next, is a ver}'- sure remedy for this class of parasites, and the dis- 
eases which result from their presence. To counteract the debili- 
tating effect of these parasites, the food should be of the most nu- 
tritive and digestible character, and linseed in some shape should 
not be omitted. 

PARASITES AND PARASITIC DISEASES OF THE SKIN. 

Of the epizoa or external parasites of the sheep, the most formid- 
able is the Scab insect, or Acarus scabiei. This is a minute mite 
which attaches itself to the skin and penetrates the surface, lodg- 
ing itself in the tissues and causing intense irritation or itching, 



230 



THE SHEPHERD'S MANUAL. 



and the secretion of a serous exudation wliich dries upon the sur- 
face and forms a scab. This disease was well known to ancient 
shepherds, and an exact description was given by the poet Virgil 
in his Georgics. It is mentioned by the historian Livy, as being 
very virulent in his time. But up to a very recent date the cause 
of the disease was not correctly known. Youatt's work on the 
sheep, published in 1840, by the English " Society for the Diflfusion 
of Useful Knowledge," states it to be caused by bad keep, starva- 
tion, over-driving, dogging, exposure to cold and wet, and other 
causes of a suppi^ession of the perspiration. He mentions the acari 
as carriers of the disease, but not as the cause. In an attempt to 
account for the origin of the insect, he makes the following re- 
marks, which in the light of our present knowledge are a curious 
relic of the ignorance which existed 40 years ago, and which has 
not yet quite passed away. " Physiologists are beginning to ac- 
knowledge the working of a mysterious but noble principle — the 

springing up of life 
under new forms, 
when the com- 
ponent principles of 
previous beings are 
decaying, or have 
seemingly perished. 
Thus, if we mace- 
rate any vegetable 
substance, the fluid 
will teem with my- 
riads of living be- 
ings, called into 
existence by the 
process we are con- 
ducting, or rather 
by that power of 
Nature, or that prin- 
ciple which was bestowed by the author of Nature, that life 
ceasing in one form shall spring up in others, and this while the 
creation lasts. Thus we have probably the hydatid in the brain 
of the sheep, and the fluke in its liver ; parasitical beings, which 
we recognise in no other form and in no other place. They were 
the product of the disease of the part. In like manner the acarus 
of scab may be called into existence by the derangements which 
oiir neglect, or unavoidable accident, or disease, may have made in 
the skin of the sheep. Scab may be, and is, of spontaneous ori- 




88.— FEMALE SCAB INSECT, 



THE SCAB-MITE. 231 

gin, as well as the product of contagion ; and the acarus, having 
sprung into life within the pores of the skin, obeys the laws of all 
living beings as to its after existence and multiplication." 

It shows with what caution speculations should be indulged in, 
and how much safer it is to saj " we do not know," than to haz- 
ard explanations which may be wide of the truth and misleading. 
It has long been known that the origm of the existence of all ani- 
mal life is an e^g produced and fecundated by parents, and the 
scab-mite being no exception to this law, comes forth from an egg 
and springs into life just as a chicken does. In both cases the egg 
is deposited and hatched, and produces the mature animal. The 
female scab insect, seen at figure 88, is larger than the male, 
which is shown at figure 89, magnified 
2,500 times. One male suffices for many 
females, and is longer lived than the 
female. The latter dies after producing 
her eggs, which she deposits in the pores 
of the skin, or in the furrows of the scab 
which she has helped to produce. Her 
eggs are numerous, and being hatched in 
three days, her progeny increase rapidly. 
One female acarus can produce a million 
and a half of progeny in 90 days. This 
facility of increase explains the rapidity Fig. 89.— male scab 
with which the disease spreads through a 

flock, and proves the necessity for instant and energetic remedies 
or eflfective preventives. 

The symptoms first observed are restlessness and uneasiness, and 
the observant shepherd will have his suspicions aroused and search 
for the cause on the first appearance of these symptoms amongst 
his flock. As the disease progresses, the sheep are found rubbing 
or scratchmg themselves, or biting or nibbling amongst their 
wool. The attention should then be directed to the parts rubbed 
or bitten. If scab is present, the skin will be at first white in 
color and of a thicker texture than the rest, and moist or covered 
with a yellow exudation. Later these parts are covered with scab 
and the wool falls off or becomes loose. If a lock of this wool be 
laid upon a sheet of white paper, the mites will be seen with the 
unaided eye, as they crawl from it. If the disease is neglected, 
the scabby spots enlarge and increase in number, the wool appears 
ragged all over, and falls off in patches. Upon these bare spots 
dense brown or yellow scales are seen, and if the sheep can reach 
a fence or a post, the scabs are rubbed until they bleed and be- 




232 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



come sores. The condition of tlie sheep falls off rapidly, and it 
becomes a wo-begone object, such as is shown in figure 90. 

The treatment is by dipping in a liquid which penetrates and 
softens the scab so that it can be removed, and which poisons the 
insect. There are many preparations used for this purpose, some 
of which are objectionable on account of their poisonous proper- 
ties, such as mercurial or arsenical compounds, and which are 
no more effective than the following perfectly safe one. This 
consists of tobacco and sulphur in the proportions of four ounces 
of the first, and one of the second, to the gallon of water. The 
water is brought to a boiling heat, and the tobacco, either coarse 
cheap leaf or stems, which are equally good, is steeped, (but not 
boiled), in it until the strength is exhausted. The sulphur is then 




Fig. 90. — SHEEP AFFECTED WITH SCAB. 

stirred in the liquid. When it has become reduced in tempera- 
ture to 130 degrees, it is ready for use. The sheep are entirely 
immersed in the liquid so that the wool is completely saturated. 
Hard crusts of scab are broken up and removed with care, and 
the raw surfaces are well washed with the decoction. The dip- 
ped animals should be kept in a yard until the wool no longer 
drips, lest the pasture should be fouled, and the sheep sickened by 
the tobacco juice. After ten days the dipping is repeated to de- 
stroy any newly hatched mites. With care the most badly in- 
fected locality may be completely freed from this pest, and it will 
never appear if the sheep are dipped twice each year as a preven- 
tive. The gain in the growth of wool and in its improved quality 
will more than repay the cost of the operation. (See page 48.) 

The Sheep Tick {Melophagus ovinus), has been already referred 
to (p:ige 48); if the process of dipping, just described, is regularly 
practiced, this parasite will be easily vanquished, and its annoying 
presence prevented. This insect propagates only by single eggs, 
or rarther the perfect pupa is expelled singly from the female, 



THE SHEEP-TICK. 



233 





which is therefore termed pupiparous ; it does not, therefore, in- 
crease very fast, and is easily kept under. It is too well known 
to need minute description, its dark 
red, tough, leathery-skinned body be- 
ing a most conspicuous object, when 
the wool of almost any sheep in the 
country is examined. The pupa and 
mature sheep-tick, greatly magnified, 
are shown at figure 91. 
The Sheep-louse {I'richodectes 
ovis), is known as the red 
sheep-louse. Its head is of a 
red color, and the body pale 
yellow, marked with dark 
bands. It is found on the side ^'^' 91--sheep-tick aub pupa. 

of the neck of the sheep, and the inner parts of the thighs and 
arms. It causes much irritation, by which the sheep is impelled 
to thrust its head between the bars of gates or 
fences, or to kick and stamp with its legs. Oc- 
casionally sheep are found strangled by becoming 
fixed in their attempts to rub their necks, or with 
their legs broken in attempts to rub them upon rails. 
Lice are rarely found on the yolky wooled sheep, but 
on the drier fleeced breeds they often cause much 
unsuspected mischief. Those sheep which are regu- 
larly dipped, are also free from this pest. To rub 
the parts mentioned with the following preparations 
is generally an easy remedy. 

Lard 1 pound. 

Flowers of Sulphur 2 ounces. 

Creasote 20 drops. 

one pint of sweet oil may be substituted for the lard. This louse 

is small, and the illustration, figure 92, is of one highly magnified. 

The Sheep Gad Fly {(Estrus oms). — This is a most troublesome 

pest, causing much discomfort to the sheep. It is a fly with two 

wings spreading over one inch, and a stout body over half an inch 

in length. In the summer months they disturb the sheep in the 

pastures by the efforts they make to deposit their eggs upon the 

animal's nostrils. When they succeed in their eff'orts, the sheep 

often becomes half frantic, and races violently over the pasture, 

sometimes seriously injuring itself by becoming overheated. 

Where the fly abounds, the sheep crowd together and stop feed- 

mg, holding their noses to the ground, and stamping with their 




Fig. 92. 

SHEEP LOUSE. 



234 THE shepherd's makual. . 

fore feet. The grub, when hatched from the egg, crawls up the 
nostril, and lodges in the sinuses of the head, where it remains 
feeding upon the mucus secreted by the membranes, until the fol- 
lowing spring. In entering the nostrils and in leaving them, they 
cause much irritation to the sheep. The remedy lies in prevent* 
ing the fly from laying its eggs, and this is done by smearing the 
nostrils of the sheep with tar, diluted with grease or butter. This 
is both distasteful to the fly and fatal to the egg. By preparing a 
pailful of the mixture, and smearing the noses of the sheep with a 
brush, as they pass one by one through a half opened gate, every 
morning during fly time (July and August), the sheep will be 
spared much annoyance. When grubs are crawling down the 
nostril early in spring, they may be quickly dislodged by blowing 
tobacco smoke into the nose through a pipe. 

The Maggot, so called, is a formidable enemy of the sheep. It 
is the larvae of the common flesh fly {8arcop7iaga carnaria), the 
blue-bottle fly {musca CcEsar), and the meat fly {musca mmitorid), 
all of which deposit their eggs or living larvae upon decaying ani- 
mal matter. When sheep are wounded by accident, or are allowed 
to become filthy when troubled with diarrhea, these eggs or larvae 
are deposited in vast' numbers ; the ovaries of a single Sarcopha- 
gus having been found to contain 20,000 eggs. The maggots soon 
become active, and spreading from their quarters, attack the skin, 
which they irritate and cause to secrete a serous fluid. In time 
the skin is pierced, and the flesh suppurates and wastes away, 
being devoured by the multitude of maggots which crawl upon it. 
In wet seasons the mischief is greatly increased. To prevent them 
it is necessary to carefully remove the wool from about the tail so 
that filth may not gather ; to watch for any accidental wound; and 
in warm wet weather, for any dirty tags of wool upon which the 
flies may deposit eggs. In case any maggots are found, there is 
no better application than common crude petroleum, or whale-oil, 
both of which arc repulsive and fatal to fly and maggot. A sheep 
that is '* struck " with maggots will remain separate from the flock, 
and may be lost sight of unless the flock is counted at least once 
a day, and the straggler found. Weaning time, when the ewes 
may suflfer from caked udder, is an especially critical period, and 
then extra watchfulness is called for. 

DISEASES OF THE FEET. 

Sheep are subject to many disorders of the feet. The structure 
of the sheep's foot is different from that of the horse. It possesses 



CON^TAGIOUS FOOT-ROT. 235 

no laminae which connect the outer crust or horn with the sensi- 
tive parts within, but the crust is connected with the bone by a 
vascular structure, by which it is also secreted. The growth of 
the hoof of the sheep is not from the coronet downwards, as in 
the horse, but from the whole inner secreting surface. In this lies 
both the weakness of the sheep's foot, and the rapidity with which 
repairs are made, when it is injured or diseased. The wall or 
crust surrounds the outside of the foot, and turns under at the 
edge of the sole and toe, and it is impossible to distingush where 
the crust ends, and the sole begins, both being so much alike in 
structure. The crust is harder and tougher than the sole, which 
is soft and elastic, like India rubber. As the toot wears down by 
contact with the ground, the crust is worn off to a sharp edge upon 
the outer margin ; when the wear and growth balance each other, 
the foot is in perfect condition ; but when either is greater than 
the other, the conditions of disease are at once established, and 
unless removed by proper treatment, lameness occurs. 

Another peculiarity of the sheep's foot is the interdigital canal, 
which commences in a small opening about one inch above 
the foot, passes downwards and backwards between the toes 
and ends in a pouch which is curved upwards upon itself. 
The canal is covered with hair, and is studded with glands which 
secrete an oily fluid. This fluid overflows at the opening, and 
moistens the skin between the toes, preventing chafing and sore- 
ness. The peculiar structure of the foot of the shesp, under unfa- 
vorable circumstances, gives occasion to several serious diseases. 
Of these the most frequent and important is 

Foot-rot. — This disease is contagious, and may spread through 
the flock, if preventive measures are not taken. It consists of an 
inflammation of the whole hoof, the formation of blisters upon 
the heels and between the toes, which break and form discharging 
surfaces, and in a few days, ulcers, which suppurate and excrete 
fetid matter. The fore feet are the most usually affected. When 
this happens the sheep may be observed to go around feeding 
painfully upon their knees. If no attention is given, the hoof is 
lost in course of time, and a wounded stump only is left. It is 
caused at first by wet pastures in which the feet become foul, the 
horn becomes detached under the sole, and harbors filth which 
softens the sole, and influences the vascular tissue beneath it. 
Neglect completes the conditions under which the disease oc- 
curs. The treatment should be immediate on the appearance of 
the first lameness, for when the ulcerative stage has arrived, the 
cure is long and difficult, the whole condition of the animal being 



236 THE shepherd's manual. 

involved. As soon as lameness is perceived, the sheep should be 
examined. All raw, loose, or diseased horn should be cut away 
with a sharp knife ; any excessive growth of horn at the toes 
should be removed, and if any pus or matter is found beneath the 
horn, that should be pared away until it is all exposed. The feet 
should then be washed clean with carbolic soap and water twice a 
week, and after each washing a piece of tow or lint dipped into 
' the following mixture should be bound on the foot and between 
the digits, viz : 

Oxide of Copper 4 ounces. 

Arsenic 1/2 " 

Acetic Acid 3 *' 

Honey 8 " 

Or the foot may be thoroughly smeared with the following oint- 
ment, viz : 

Finely Powdered Blue Vitriol 1 pound. 

Verdigris V2 " 

Linseed-oil 1 pint. 

Pine Tar 1 quart. 

This will dry on the foot and will not be washed oflF by the wet 
grass as a solution would be. 

The following remedy is in general use amongst French and 
German shepherds : 

Chloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate) 15 grains. 

Acetate of Copper 30 " 

Sulphate of Zinc 30 " 

Hydro-chloric Acid (muriatic) 2 drams. 

Water 2 ounces. 

The diseased parts to be touched daily with a feather dipped in 
the above solution. In case the disease has made considerable 
progress, and the sheep are found feverish and generally ailing, 
each sick one should receive, according to circumstances, a dose 
of one to two ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in half a pint of 
water. At the expiration of two days the following should be 
given, viz : 

Nitrate of Potash 1/2 ounce. 

Flowers of Sulphur 1/2 " 

mixed with molasses and placed on the tongue until swallowed. 
This may be repeated once a week until the feet are well. 

When the disease becomes virulent, the foot is swollen, sinuses 
are formed, and ulceration progresses until the whole foot is 
deeply involved, and the sheep fails to eat, loses flesh, and is in a 
condition of fever from blood poisoning by the absorbed matter. 



COMMON FOOT-KOT. 237 

The case is tlien often unmanageable except at greater cost than 
the value of the sheep. Fortunately such a termination rarely 
occurs, unless through great neglect or the most unskillful man- 
agement. In such a case the foot should be washed, the loose and 
separated horn removed with care, and the foot poulticed with a 
warm carrot or turnip poultice twice a day for three days, and the 
following should be administered at once : 

Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 

Laudanum 1 dram. 

After the feet have been cleaned by the poultice, the treatment 
before mentioned should be continued until recovery is made. 
The patient being unable to move without great pain, should be 
kept in a pen with a clean floor free from straw or chafl", or any- 
thing that would irritate the foot or convey infection elsewhere. 

A method recommended by the Hon. H. S. Randall, who has 
successfully treated many of his own flock in this manner, is to 
procure a large tub or trough in which three sheep can stand at 
one time, and to pour into this tub a hot saturated solution of blue 
vitriol (sulphate of copper), until it is four inches deep. The 
sheep having had their feet washed, and all loose horn pared off, 
are placed in the tub on their feet and held there by an assistant. 
The first sheep is kept in the foot-bath until the fourth is ready to 
go in, when it is taken out ; when the fifth goes in, the second is 
turned out. Thus each sheep remains in the bath about ten min- 
utes, giving time for the solution to penetrate every part of the 
diseased hoof. After the bath, the sheep are kept in a dry grass 
field. One application of this remedy served in every case, to 
make a complete cure. This troublesome disease is rarely known 
in this country upon dry pasture, and generally yields at once to a 
simple paring of the feet and shortening of the overgrown toes, a 
cleansing from all filth or irritating matter, and a dressing with an 
astringent ointment such as the first above mentioned. 

Common Foot-rot or Gravel, is not contagious, and being the re- 
sult of accidental circumstances, is cured by their removal, together 
with simple auxiliary treatment. It consists of an inflammation 
of the internal parts of the foot, the formation of matter, its escape 
at the top of the hoof, the separation of the horn or crust from 
the diseased parts, and as a matter of course, extreme lameness. 
It is caused by an excessive wear of the crust of the hoof upon 
stony, gravely pastures, or by excessive growth of the crust or 
toe, in low moist meadows. In either case, foreign matter enters 
between the crust and the sole, and pressing upon the sensitive 



238 THE shepherd's manual. 

parts beneath, causes iDflammation, which not being at once rem- 
edied, increases with the above results. The means of prevention 
are obvious. 

The treatment consists in removing the offending matter with 
great care and tenderness by means of the knife or a small probe, 
as a knitting needle or wire, cleansing the foot, and washing it in 
astringent and antiseptic solutions, such as the following : 

Chloride of Zinc 1 ounce. 

Water 1 quart. 

sulphate of copper or sugar of lead may be substituted for the 
chloride of zinc. In very bad cases the treatment for malignant 
foot-rot should be adopted. Removal from wet pastures is neces- 
sary to a cure, and for some time afterwards, or the trouble will 
quickly recur. 

Epizootic aphtha (foot-and-mouth disease), is highly contagious, 
and will rapidly spread through a flock. It affects the feet as well 
as the lips and tongue. The treatment has been already described 
in this chapter. 

Inflammation of the Inter digital Canal. — This is of frequent 
occurrence when sheep are driven upon sandy or dusty roads, are 
pastured on sandy lands, or are permitted to lie in muddy yards. 
Offending matter enters the canal and causes inflammation, which 
spreads to the interior of the foot, and results in swelling and great 
tenderness. Removal of the irritating matter by means of a small 
probe or the trimmed end of a feather dipped in oil, and bathing 
the foot in warm water and vinegar, are generally sufficient to re- 
move the trouble. When sheep become lame, and the foot is 
found hot, with no sign of outward cause, this may be at once 
suspected. 

Canker of the foot is a very obstinate disease. It consists of in- 
flammation of the sole of the foot, which gives way to a growth 
of spongy sprouts instead of the natural hoof, and a discharge of 
white curdy matter which has a most offensive odor. It is a simi- 
lar disease to thrush or canker of the frog in horses. The most 
frequent causes are folding the sheep in yards or sheds, where the 
dung is allowed to collect in a mass which ferments and heats, and 
from neglected cases of common foot-rot or inflammation of the 
interdigital canal. 

The treatment consists of the removal of all the separated hoof 
at the first and every future dressing, along with any that may 
appear sound, but has dead offensive matter beneath it. The foot 
should then be washed in a solution of one dram of chloride of 



DISEASES IJ!TCIDENT TO LAMBING.' 239 

zinc in a pint of water, and a pledget of tow or lint dipped in a 
mixture of one part of common (not fuming) nitric acid with 
three parts of water, should be applied to the whole of the cank- 
ered surface. This should be repeated frequently, until a cure is 
made. 

LAMBING AND DISEASES CONNECTED WITH IT. 

The number of lambs raised in proportion to those that are 
dropped is far less than it ought to be. Probably ten per cent of 
the lambs annually dropped, are lost through- negligence or want 
of simple methods of protection. Many are lost through neglect 
of the condition of the ewes. The laanbing season is one that calls 
for great patience on the part of the shepherd, rather than for 
great skill. A well disciplined flock, well provided with shelter 
and quiet retreats for the ewes, will raise a larger proportion of 
lambs than a neglected one. Dogs about a flock at lambing time 
are an unmitigated nuisance, and cause many losses. When the 
lambs begin to drop it is not difficult to discover those ewes that 
will come in, in twenty-four hours. The parts become red and 
swollen, and the udder swells and fills. It is at this period that 
the ewes need close watching, both to discover anything that may 
go wrong, and to render assistance when it is needed. If the ewes 
have been carefully tended, there is rarely any difficulty encoun- 
tered that may not be overcome by simple measures, yet amongst 
the most carefully tended flocks there will be some occasional 
cases which will call for the treatment herein described as ap- 
plicable to the disorders mentioned. 

There is rarely any necessity for manual assistance to the ewes 
at lambing time. Sometimes in cases of protracted labor it will 
be necessary for the shepherd to ascertain if the lamb is in proper 
position, with the fore feet and head first ; if it is, the ewe may be 
left alone with safetv. If the position is unnatural, help should 
be given by an experienced shepherd. If no aid can be obtained, 
it is dangerous for an inexperienced person to assist, lest he may 
be too hasty and rough in his help. If the lamb is presented in 
such a manner that it cannot be expelled, it should be gently 
forced back again by some person with a small hand, the hand 
being smeared with sweet-oil. It should then be gently brought 
into such a position that the feet shall be presented first, with the 
head lying upon them, and not doubled back. If the hind parts 
are presented, the feet should be gently brought up after the lamb 



5^40 " THE shepherd's MANUAL. 

has been pushed back. If the placenta or after-birth has not 
come awa}^ in due season, it may be gently pulled by the hand, 
when it will be generally expelled in a short time. If the ewe is 
weak, a little warm gruel, sweetened and flavored with ginger, 
may be fed with a spoon or given with a horn. It is the 'poor, lean, 
badly kept ewes which suffer most in lambing ; those in good condi- 
tion, or even fat, rarely experience any difficulty. 

Parturient Femr rarely attacks our native sheep, but imported 
sheep are sometimes subject to it. It generally occurs within a 
few days of lambing. The first symptoms are refusal of food, 
twitching of the hind legs and ears, dullness and stupidity ; the 
head is carried down, the eyes are half closed, and a dark colored 
discharge flows from the vagina. If the lamb is now dropped it 
is dead, but the ewe, if kept quiet and well nursed, will generally 
recover in two or three days. But if the lamb is not then expelled, 
the symptoms grow worse, the ewe suflers from fever, and moans 
with pain, and the discharge is very oflTensive. The lamb, if ex- 
pelled at this stage, is in a high state of putrefaction, and the ewe 
falls into a condition of collapse, from which she rarely recovers. 
If the lamb is not expelled, the ewe dies. 

The treatment should consist of the removal of the ewe from 
the flock to a quiet pen, on the first appearance of sickness. She 
should be well cared for, and fed with warm gruel of linseed or 
oat-meal. As soon as the dark colored discharge occurs, the lamb 
is almost certainly dead, and beginning to decompose, and its re- 
moval is necessary. The vagina should be washed with warm 
water, and the finger, smeared with the extract of belladonna, 
should be introduced into the passage every three hours until it is 
sufficiently dilated to allow of the expulsion of the lamb. Two 
tablespoonfuls of the following medicine should be given twice a 
day, viz : 

Calomel 8 grains. 

Extract of Hyoscyamus 1 dram. 

Linseed Tea V2 pint. 

At the same time a quarter of a pint of the following should be 
given alternately with the above : 

Epsom Salts 8 ounces. 

Nitrate of Potash 1/2 " 

Carbonate of Soda 2 " 

Water , 1 pint. 

The above mixtures should be shaken up before giving them. 



GARGET. 241 

After the bowels have been operated upon, these mixtures are 
omitted, and the followmg given : 

Nitrate of Potash V2 ounce. 

Carbonate of Soda 1 *' 

Camphor 1 dram. 

Gum Water 8 ounces. 

An eighth of a pint to be given twice a day. The ewe should be 
fed chiefly upon thin oat-meal gruel and milk, or infusion of lin- 
seed. After the lamb has been expelled, the uterus should be in- 
jected with warm milk and water, or if there is a very offensive 
discharge, one dram of chloride of lime dissolved in a pint of 
warm water, should be injected instead of the milk and water. 

Abortmi.— This disease is not frequent amongst sheep, and 
when it occurs can almost always be traced to the excessive use of 
roots in cold weather, when the ewe is heavy with lamb. It has 
also been known to occur in consequence of, or after, the heavy 
dressing of turnip or mangel land with superphosphate, the crop 
having been fed to the ewes, but this is probably in consequence 
of the greater succulence of the roots so grown, rather than the 
direct action of the phosphate. The distension of the stomach 
with cold, watery food, so greatly reduces the temperature of the 
abdominal viscera as to destroy the life of the foetus, which is pre- 
maturely expelled, with all the disagreeable consequences to the 
ewe described in the preceding paragraph. Chasing by dogs is a 
very frequent cause. 

The treatment is preventive and alleviative. Caution in feeding 
roots to in-lamb ewes in any but small quantities, or in avoiding 
fright, excessive exertion, and worrying, will prevent its occur- 
rence. When it has happened, the following may be given with 
some nourishing liquid food, viz ; 

Epsom Salts , 1/2 ounce. 

Laudanum 1 dram. 

Powdered Camphor 1/2 " 

The latter two only may be repeated the second day. 

Garget. — This disease consists of inflammation of the udder or 
milk glands. It rarely occurs, except in those ewes which have 
lost then- young and are not supplied with foster lambs, or when 
the teats are not opened readily by the new-born lamb ; or at 
weaning time. If the ewe is in good condition, and has a large 
flow of milk, which is not drawn off, the udder becomes gorged, 
inflamed, and finally festers and suppurates. In this way some 
ewes may lose part or the whole of the udder, and their useful- 
ness as breeders be destroyed. It is also occasioned by allowing 
11 



242 THE shepherd's manual. 

a nursing ewe to lie in the wet and cold in the pasture or the 
yards. In the summer time, when lambs are taken from the ewes 
and sent to market, a ewe may become gargeted, and if neglected, 
may become a victim to myriads of maggots which will breed in the 
festering udder. Ewes are thus lost occasionally. It is obvious that 
prevention will be most effective. When garget has occurred, the 
Treatment is to give a purgative and diuretic to reduce the flow 
of milk and any fever that may exist. This may be the following : 

Epsom Salts 2 ounces. 

Nitrate of Potash 2 drams. 

Ginger 1 " 

to be given in water, and repeated in twenty-four hours. The 
udder should be bathed in warm water, and a solution of carbon- 
ate of soda be injected into the teats by a small metal syringe, and 
afterwards milked out. The disease may result in the permanent 
injury of the udder, or the closing of one or both of the teats, in 
which case the ewe should be discarded as a breeder. 

Inversion of the Uterus may occur in cases of severe labor, 
when the ewe is weak. The womb is turned inside out, and pro- 
trudes from the body as a red bladder. From ignorance this is 
sometimes cut off, and the ewe destroyed. The parts should be 
gently washed in warm water and cleansed from all foreign mat- 
ter. The ewe should then be held so that the hinder parts are 
raised, and with a small hand well greased with sweet-oil, or pure 
fresh lard, the womb should be returned, gently working it into 
its natural position by the thumbs or fingers. The finger nails 
should be closely pared, lest they may wound the tender parts. 
A needle with a strong linen thread or fine catgut, should then be 
passed through the skin upon both sides of the vagina, and tied 
so as to form a loop across it which will prevent the uterus from 
again protruding ; 20 to 30 drops of tincture of opium should be 
given in some warm gruel, and the ewe left to rest upon a soft bed 
in perfect quiet with her hind parts raised above the level of her 
head, for several days. 

SPECIAL DISEASES, OPERATIONS, AND ACCIDENTS. 

OpMhdlmia. — This is a disease of the eye frequently caused by 
cold, or by grazing in stubble fields, when the straws of the stub- 
ble will occasionally wound the eyes. It is perceived at once by 
the tenderness and redness of the organ, a flow of tears, and a 
discharge of pus from the corner of the eye. It is readily cured 



CASTRATIOiq^ OF RAMS. 243 

by washing the eye with a solution of four grains of sulphate of 
zinc in an ounce of warm water, and keeping the sheep in a dark 
stable for a day or two. If the eye is seriously inflamed, and the 
sheep distressed with pain, give a dose of an ounce of Epsom salts 
dissolved in water, and twenty drops of laudanum may be added 
to the zinc solution above mentioned with good effect. 

Castration.— This necessary operation should be performed as 
early as possible, as there is less danger of evil effects following it 
than when the lamb is older. The lining membrane of the scro- 
tum is a continuation of that of the abdomen, and when inflam- 
mation follows the operation, it is readily communicated to the 
abdomen, and peritonitis or inflammation of the membrane lining 
the cavity and enveloping the bowels results, and this is generally 
fatal. A lamb a week old may be deprived of the whole scrotum 
and testicles, by one stroke of a pair of shears, without any danger 
or the loss of more than a few drops of blood. But when the 
lamb has become some months old, the organ has become fully 
developed as to nerves and vessels, and a more careful operation 
must be performed. An excellent method is for the operator to 
sit upon a long bench, with one of the lamb's hind legs beneath 
each of his thighs, the head and fore legs being held by an assist- 
ant. Taking the scrotum in the left hand, he presses the testicles 
towards the lower end, making the skin tight and smooth. He 
then makes a free incision with a sharp knife at the bottom of 
the scrotum beneath each testicle; the membranes which sur- 
round them are cut through, the cords and vessels which are at- 
tached to them, are scraped, not cut asunder, and the operation is 
completed. To castrate a mature ram, an incision is made at the 
bottom of each compartment of the scrotum, each testicle being 
removed separately, the cords and vessels being always scraped 
asunder. The main point to secure is, to have the wound at the 
bottom of the scrotum, so as to allow the pus, which will form 
within it, to escape. If this pus is retained in the wound, it 
becomes absorbed, inflammation is communicated to the adjacent 
parts, and a fatal termination is likely to ensue. To prevent 
this, a small lock of wool is sometimes left in the wound, by 
which it is kept open and the danger averted. 

Docking. — This operation should be performed on all the lambs 
when a week or two old. It is then but slightly painful. The 
best method is to take the lamb between the knees, holding its 
rump closely against a block of wood. Then drawing the skin of 
the tail towards the rump, with the fingers of the left hand, a 



244 THE shephekd's maj^ual. 

sharp chisel is held by the right hand upon the tail, below the 
fingers, and two inches from the rump ; a boy gives the chisel a 
smart rap with a light mallet, and the tail is severed at one stroke 
with a smooth cut which leaves the bone Id a good condition to 
heal quickly. A pinch of powdered copperas may be placed on 
the stump of the tail to stanch any bleeding, and to keep off flies. 

j Fractures of the limbs sometimes occur through neglect to let 
down bars when sheep are entering or leaving a fold or field, or 
through other accidents. .These are easily repaired by bringing 
the broken ends of the bone together in the proper position, and 
binding the limbs in splints of wood. The splints should be 
wrapped with strips of cloth to prevent them from chafing the 
limbs, and the bandage should be made secure, but not so tight as 
to interfere with the circulation. The bandage should be worn three 
or four weeks, and if occasionally examined, there will be no need 
to shut up the patient from the rest of the flock. An excellent 
splint is made by soaking coarse brown paper in water and wrap- 
ping it around the broken limb and then binding it with bandages 
of muslin. When the paper dries a very firm support is given if 
sufiicient is used. 

Wounds^ either punctured, incised, or lacerated, may occur from 
a variety of causes. When a sheep is wounded, the first thing to 
be done is to wash the wound with a soft cloth or sponge and 
warm water. If blood flows freely from an important artery, and 
it cannot be stanched by the use of brown sugar or powdered cop- 
peras, the bleeding end of the artery should be sought, and twisted 
two or three times, which will usually stop the flow. A sheep 
will rarely bleed to death, except from a wound which severs the 
arteries or veins of the throat. It may faint from loss of blood, 
and the flow may then, or soon afterwards, stop. If the wound 
is a clean cut with smooth edges, it should be closed, the 
wool being clipped around it, and two or more stitches taken 
through the skin at the edges, by which they may be kept together. 
The stitch should be passed through the skin in two places directly 
opposite each other on either side of the wound ; the thread 
should then be tied tightly enough to keep the edges in contact, 
but no more, and the ends cut off. Other similar stitches are to 
be made, and the wound is dressed upon the surface by smearing 
it with an ointment of tar and powdered blue vitriol. If the 
wound is punctured and deep, it should be dressed by injecting 
with a syringe a few drops of compound tincture of benzoin, and 
inserting in it a plug of lint or tow dipped in the same. This will 



DISEASES OF LAMBS. 245 

keep the wound open until it lieals from the bottom. If allowed 
to close before the bottom is healed, an abscess will be formed 
which will need to be opened. If the wound is in such a 
position that the pus formed cannot escape freely, it should be 
removed twice a day by means of a feather or a swab of linen 
at the end of a small stick, and the plug soaked in tincture of 
benzoin inserted. If any foreign matter, such as a splinter of 
v/ood, remains in the wound, it must be removed, if necessary 
by enlarging the wound, before it can heal. A wound that is dif- 
ficult to heal from its depth and narrowness, may sometimes be 
made more tractable by opening and enlarging it at the top. 
Lacerated wounds will need to be treated as both incised and 
punctured wounds. Where the torn parts can be brought to- 
gether, stitches should be made, and where the flesh is separated 
from the surrounding tissue, the fragments may be cut off. The 
deeper parts should then be treated as punctured wounds. Such 
wounds are long in healing, because skin is reproduced only from 
the edges of the sound surface. As many of the lacerated por- 
tions of skin as possible should be brought together, so as to form 
edges from which the new growth may start. It will be a ques- 
tion if the value of the sheep in this case will repay the time and 
labor spent in treating it. If not, to take its skin at the outset 
may be the most advisable course. To cure a large wound in the 
fly season is a work of much trouble. 

Sprains are not uncommon accidents in a large flock. They are 
reduced very easily by rest, and the use of a liniment such as 

Olive-oil 1 pint. 

Ammonia Water 2 ounces. 

DISEASES PECULIAR TO LAMBS. 



Lambs frequently fall victims to some diseases which seem to 
aifect them more virulently than they do grown-up sheep, or else 
the young animal having less strength or vitality than the mature 
one, more easily succumbs to those diseases. In its earlier life 
it is also affected with some disorders peculiar to its condition. 
These diseases call for special treatment. The most troublesome 
ailment to which lambs are subject, are those of the digestive or- 
gans, and chief amongst this is 

Diarrhea or " White Scours". — In the unweaned lamb diarrhea 
takes the form generally known as *' white scours." This appears 



246 THE shepherd's manual. 

as a liquid discharge of a white color, which is simply the passage 
through the bowels of undigested milk. It is caused by a change 
in the quality of the ewe's milk, which is not coagulated in the 
lamb's stomach, and remains as an irritative agent, exciting the 
bowels to undue action, by which the milk is discharged soon 
after it is swallowed, almost without change. The food of the ewe 
probably has much to do with this, as the trouble is most frequent 
when the ewe is fed upon rank, succulent, watery herbage, or an 
excess of roots. When this cause does not exist, it arises from a 
disordered condition of the lamb's stomach. When the former 
cause is suspected, the ewe should be treated. The food should 
be changed to other kinds of a more solid and nutritious cliarac- 
ter. A poorer pasture should be provided, or hay be given for a 
few days, along with some crushed oats and corn, or malt, linseed, 
cotton-seed-meal, bran, or peas. The lamb should receive the 
following daily, until recovered, viz : 

Linseed-oil 1 teaspoonful. 

Essence of Ginger 5 drops. 

When the cause exists within the lamb, two teaspoon fuls of the 
following astringent mixture may be given night and morning, 
after the before mentioned has operated, viz : 

Prepared Chalk 1 ounce. 

Powdered Catechu 4 drams. 

" Ginger 2 " 

" Opium V2 " 

Peppermint Water 1 pint. 

to be mixed. Shake before administering. 

Sometimes the discharge consists of a pale, greenish liquid, sim- 
ilar to whey ; this is the result of indigestion, as the food of the 
lamb taken in excess is coagulated in the stomach, and accumu- 
lates sometimes to several pounds in quantity. When this occurs, 
in addition to the looseness and color of the dung, the lamb is 
dull, walks moodily behind the ewe with its head drooped, and 
the abdomen is hard and swollen. The following should then be 
given twice, viz : Carbonate of Magnesia, half ounce, mixed in 
water, to be followed by half an ounce of Epsom salts in a teacup- 
f 111 of water, after which the astringent medicine should be given. 
This course of treatment should be followed in case of the " green 
scours,'''' which may happen after weaning, when the lamb is 
turned upon clover pasture. Sometimes the presence of worms in 
the stomach and intestines will cause a looseness of the bowels. 
In such a case the discharge from the bowels will be mixed with 



DISEASES OF LAMBS. 247 

slime or mucus. The treatment should then be as follows : give 
to a year-old lamb 

Linseed-oil 1 ounce. 

Powdered Opium 3 grains. 

Starch 1 ounce. 

mixed in boilmg water to make a draught. A teacupful of rice 
water should be given twice a day. The above to be repeated the 
second day. After the irritation of the bowels is removed, give 
the following: 

Linseed-oil 2 ounces. 

Spirits of Turpentine ^ drams. 

to be repeated weekly for a month if considered necessary. 

Constipation.— When this occurs, the dung is scanty and at long 
intervals passes in lumps, which are glazed and hard. There is 
pain at the times of discharge, which is evmced by the arching 
of the back, and peculiar but expressive actions of the lamb. The 
treatment consists in injections of warm water, with two or three 
half-ounce doses of linseed-oil, given at intervals of six hours. 
The food should consist of oat-meal, or linseed gruel, sweetened 
with molasses ; if it will not be taken in that way, it should be 
given by means of a horn. 

Spasmodic Colic produces severe pains, occurring in paroxysms. 
The lamb falls and struggles, or remains with eyes fixed, as if 
convulsed. It is generally an accompaniment of constipation, and 
always of indigestion. The treatment is to give the following 
mixture, viz : 

Tincture of Rhubarb 1 dram. 

Carbonate ol Soda 1 " 

Warm Water sweetened with Molasses 2 ounces. 

This should be administered slowiy with a spoon. After the 
spasms are relieved, give half an ounce of linseed-oil. 

Paralysis. — This disease may occur through a severe chill or 
exposure to cold rains, or as a symptom of chronic indigestion 
from inaction of the stomach. The latter is to be suspected when 
the appetite is depraved, and sand, earth, and coarse matter is 
eagerly swallowed. In the former case, a warm bath, with fric- 
tion upon the spine, with spirits of turpentine, or ammonia water, 
followed by a few days nursing, may be found useful. In the 
latter case, the symptoms and post-mortem appearance show that 
the base of the brain, the spine, and the nervous system proceed- 
ing to the stomach are ajQfected. The lamb suffers severely as if in 
great pain. It is unable to rise upon its hind legs, and is con- 



248 THE shepherd's manual. 

vulsed with spasms ; the teeth are ground together, and the breath- 
ing is quick and hard, and death generally results. The only defi- 
nite directions that are likely to result favorably, are to prevent 
the disease by watching the condition of the lamb after it is 
weaned, and to provide such food as shall keep it in a thriving 
condition. Poverty of blood being the direct cause, any treat- 
ment that will avoid that condition will be helpful. A small 
quantity of linseed-cake-meal, bran, or ground oats, should be 
given daily after weaning, and until the first winter is past. Lambs 
of rapidly growing breeds cannot endure stinting in food, the de- 
mands of their constitution must be supplied to its full capacity, 
or the health suflfers, and instead of becoming simply poor and 
stunted, they become diseased. Disease thus induced cannot be 
expected to submit to medicine, and the only natural remedy is 
apt to be applied too late to be of service. 

Pale Disease, Husk, Verminous Bronchitis. — This disease con- 
sists in the presence of worms in the air-passages of lambs. These 
produce great irritation and violent coughing. The interruption 
thus resulting to the aeration of the blood in the lungs, causes gen- 
eral disturbance of the system. The appetite fails, the condition 
rapidly falls ofi", and anoemia, "pale disease," or "the bloodless 
condition," takes place, beneath which the lambs rapidly sink. 
How the worms, in large numbers, find their way into the air-pas- 
sages of so young animals, is a query which as yet cannot be satis- 
factorily solved. They are there, however, and that fact must be 
sufficient for the shepherd. These worms are a species of sirongy- 
lus or thread worm, closely akin to the fatal "gape-worm " (also 
a strongylus), which destroys so many young chickens. It is the 
same species which inhabits the lungs and bronchial tubes of the 
sheep. The lamb being less robust, is carried ofi" with greater ease 
by these attacks, than the full-grown sheep. Prevention is the 
best remedy. Lambs should not be allowed to follow sheep 
upon the same pasture, nor to pasture upon meadows that have 
been top-dressed with manure from the sheep stable or yards. No 
medicine can reach the lungs, except through the blood, and but 
few afiect them in this way. Sulphur, turpentine, and assafoetida, 
are in part exhaled through the lungs, and these medicines alone 
can be depended upon to reach these parasites. 

The treatment recommended, therefore, is to administer the fol- 
lowing, viz : 

Linsced-oil 1/2 ounce. 

Spirits of Turpentine V2 dram. 

Assafoetida 20 grains. 



TABLE OF MEASURES. 249 

to be given early in the morning, for three successive days, before 
feeding or turning to pasture, and no feed to be given for three 
hours afterward. Afterwards the following to be given daily : 

Molasses or Honey 1 pound. 

Flowers of Sulphur 4 ounces. 

one tablespoon ful to be given every morning for ten days. 

The food should be of the most nutritious and digestible char- 
acter, and if the appetite fails, the food, until the appetite returns, 
should be given by means of a horn, in the shape of gruel or infu- 
sions of oatmeal, linseed, or corn-meal, sweetened with sugar. 



TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT MEASURES. 

For the more ready use of the prescriptions mentioned in the 
preceding chapter, the following table of approximate equivalent 
measures is here given : 

FLUID MEASUBES. 

One teaspoonful = One fluid dram. 

One tablespoouful = Half a fluid ounce. 

One wine-glassful = Two fluid ounces. 

One tea {not coffee), cupful = A quarter of a pint 

One tumblerful = Half a pint. 

It will be more convenient, as well as more accurate, to have an 
apothecary's graduated glass, which is not very expensive, and 
will allow all the needed measurements to be made in a single 
utensil. This is a conical glass upon a foot, and provided with a 
lip to pour from ; they may be had of the capacity of one or two 
ounces up to a pint ; one of four ounces will be the most conve- 
nient ; the measures are marked on the glass, the sign f 3 standing 
for fluid dram, and f 1 for fluid ounce ; Ss is used for half of either. 

A set of apothecary scales and weights may be bought for a 
dollar or less. The grain weights are of thin sheet brass, with 
number of grains indicated by dots. 3 stands for scruples, and 3 
for dram ; the number of each being indicated by numerals follow- 
ing the sign ; Ss is used for half of either. 



INDEX. 



Abortion, Prevention of 241 

After-pains in Ewes 208 

♦American Merino, Description of 

the 92 

Analysis of Ash of Urine 15 

" " Dung 16 

Fodder 60-61 

" Grains 64 

" Manure 79 

" Roots 63 

" Wool 146 

Yolk 147 

Anatomy of the Sheep 168 

Anaemia, Treatment of 203 

Anthrax Fever, Treatment of 209 

Aphtha, Treatment of 210 

Apoplexy, Treatment of 216 

♦Barn for Sheep. Description of.. . 50 

* " " Small Farm 52 

* " a Convenient 57 

* Beacon-Down Sheep, Description 

of the 138 

Bile, Composition and Uses of 183 

♦Blackfaced Scotch Sheep, De- 
scription of the 122 

Black-leg, Treatment of 209 

Bleeding, how Performed 190 

* Bone, Structure of 173 

Brain of the Sheep 174 

" Water on the. Treatment of.216 

" Worms in the 81 

Breeds and Breeding Sheep 81 

" Crossing 84 

" Foreign 100 

" Native. . 89 

Breeders, Maxims for 89 

Breeding for Sex 86 

" In-and in 88 

Bronchitis. Treatment of 192 

Cabbage, Culture of 25 

Canker of the Foot, Treatment of .238 

Castration, Performance of 30-243 

Catarrh, Treatment of 191 

♦Cheviot Sheep, Description of 

the 120 

Choking, Treatment of 194 

* Circulation of the Blood 177 

Clap, Treatment of in Rams 215 

Colic, Spasmodic Treatment of 247 

Corn, Comparative Value of 65 

Costiveness. Treatment of 195-247 

Cotton-Seed-Cake-Meal, Value of.. 65 

* Cotswold, Description of the 107 

*' Improvement of other 

Breeds by the 84 

250 



♦ Cotswold-Leicester, Description 

of the 137 

Cotswold-Merino, Description of 

the 134 

Cotswold-Soulhdown, Description 

of the 138 

♦Crook 156 

Cross-bred Sheep 133-142 

Diarrhea, Treatment of 196-246 

Digestion, Process of 179 

Digestive Organs, Diseases of the. 194 

Dip for Lambs and Sheep 47 

Diseases of Lambs 243 

" " the Sheep, Observa- 
tions on 188 

" Causes and Prevention of.l90 

" of the Blood 201 

" " '• Bowels 199 

" " " Brain 216 

K " " Digestive Organs.. 194 

" Enzootic S06 

" Epizootic... 210 

Of the Feet.... 234 

Parasitic 219 

" of the Reproductive Or- 

fans 214 
Respiratory Or- 
gans 190 

" " Skin 229 

Special 242 

" of the Urinary Organs., .243 

Docking Lambs 243 

♦Dog-guards for Fences 32 

♦ Dorset Sheep. Description of thellS 

Dropsy, Treatment of 205 

Dimg, Analysis of Ash of 16 

Dysentery. Treatment of 207 

Ear Marks 34 

Enzootic Diseases 206 

Epilepsy, Treatment of 218 

Epizootic Diseases 210 

Ewes, Garget in. Treatment of 42 

" in Lamb, Care of 36 

" Number for One Ram ... 35 

" Period of Gestation of 34 

" Record of Service of 34 

" Selection cf for Breeding... 43 
" Yeaning, Treatment of. . .36-45 
" and Lambs, Management 

of-. 33-37 

Eyes, Disease of the 242 

Fattening Sheep for Market 78 

♦ Feed-Rack 31-59 

Feeding, Experiments in 66-68-70 

" Koots 27 



INDEX. 



251 



Fences, Portable 27 

Flax-Seed, Nutritive Value of — 65 
Flesh and Blood, Analysis of Ash of 15 
" Quantity Produced by Cer- 
tain Foods 67 

Flesh-fly, the 234 

* Fluke, the Liver, Description of. 220 
Fodder Crops 22 

" Analysis of 60 

" Nutritive Value of 61 

Foods for Winter Feeding 59 

" Composition of Various 60 

" Choice of 65 

"^ Proper Allowance of 72 

" Quantity of, Needed 66 

" "" for a Pound of 

Flesh 67 

Foot, Description of the 235 

" Eot, Treatment of 236 

Foot-and-Mouth-Disease 210-238 

Fractures of the Bones 241 

* French Merino, Description of. . .128 

Gad-fly, the 233 

Garget, Treatment of 241 

Giddiness or Turnsick, Treatment 

for 226 

Grains, Nutritive Value of Various 64 

Grasses, Composition of Various.. 17 

" Suitable for Pasture 16 

* Hampshire-Down Sheep, Descrip- 
tion of 116 

Heart, Structure and Functions of. 177 
Hoven, Treatment of 196 

* Hurdles, Use of 28 

* " for Refractory Ewe 37 

* Hydatids in the Brain 226 

Inflammation of the Bladder 213 

•• " Bowels 199 

" " Brain 216 

'• " Liver 201 

Influenza, Treatment of 206 

Intestines of the Sheep 182 

Kentucky, Improved, Sheep 91 

* Kidney, Structure of the 186 

Lacteal Vessels 184 

Lambing, Diseases Connected with.239 
Lambs, Castrating 39-243 

* " Dipping 48 

" Diseases of 45-245 

" Docking 39-243 

" Feeding 40 

" Laxative for 41 

*' Newly-born, Care of 37 

" Raising Early Market 73 

" Twin, Feeding 37 

* " Weaning 38 

Lamb's-Cordial 46 

* Lamb-Creep 41 

* Laurel, Poisoning by 198 

Leicester, Improvement of Other 

Breeds by 84 

* " Description of the 103 

♦Leicester-Merino, Description of 

the 135 

* Lincoln . Description of the 100 

Linseed-Oil-Cake-Meal, Value of... 64 

" " " " Substitute 

for 65 



Litter for Sheds 58 

Liver, Congestion of the 200 

" Description of the 183 

" Inflammation of the 201 

"■ Rot, the 219 

Lockjaw, Treatment of 218 

* Louse, the Sheep 233 

* Lungs of the Sheep 176 

Lung, Worms in the, Treatment f or.223 

Manure, Value of 79 

Markets 8-73-«l 

Market Lambs, Methods of Raising 74 

* " " Box for Shipping.. 76 

Profit of 78 

Measures, Explanation of 249 

Merino, American 92 

French 128 

Saxon 94-130 

" Silesian 132 

" Spanish 8-127 

" " Importation of... 93 
"■ " Improvement of . . 95 
" Maturityof 43 

* " Ram, Portrait of 98 

" Wool, Value of 94 

" " Weights of Fleeces 96 

Mexican Sheep 90 

Mustard, White, for Fodder 22 

Nerves of the Sheep .174 

* Nets for Folding Sheep 29 

Oil-Cake, Feeding Value of 64 

"■ " Manurial Value of 80 

Ophthalmia, Treatment of 242 

* Oxford-Down Sheep, Description 
of the 110 

Pale Disease of Lambs 248 

Packinjy Fleeces 161 

Palsy, Treatment of . .218 

Paralysis, Treatment of 217-247 

Parasitical Diseases 219 

Parsley, Value of in Pastures 17 

Parturient Apoplexy and Fever.208-240 

Pasture, Dry, Necessary for Health 14 

Change of. Advantageous. 31 

" Extent of, in the U. S 10 

" Exposure of 22 

" Grasses Suitable for 16 

" Management of 20 

" Suitable for Sheep 12 

Pining, Treatment of 203 

Plants, Poisonous 108 

Plethora, Treatment of 203 

Pleurisy, Treatment of 193 

Pneumonia, Treatment of 192 

Poisoning, Treatment of 198 

Pox, Sheep, Treatment of 211 

Prices of Wool in the World 166 

Production of Wool in the World. .165 

Purgatives, Use of 189 

Ram, Selection of the 43 

Rape for Fall and Winter Feeding. 23 

Red-water, Treatment of 207 

Reproductive Organs, the 187 

Respiration, Process of 175 

Respiratory Organs, Diseases of.. .190 
Retention of Urine, Treatment of ..213 

Rheumatism, Treatment of 202 

*Romney Marsh Sheep, Descrip- 



252 



THE shepherd's MANUAL. 



tion of the 104 

*Root-Cutter 26 

* " Pulper 27 

Roots, Culture of 26 

" Cutting 27 

" Feeding 27 

" Nutritive Value of 63 

" Quantity Needed for a Flock 72 

* " Storing in Pits 26 

Rot of the Foot, Treatment of 236 

* " in the Liver, Treatment of 222 

Rumination, Process of 181 

Salt Necessary for Sheep 33 

Saxon Merino, Description of the. . 130 

* Scab, Treatment for 232 

Sea-Weed Eaten by Sheep 19 

Scrofula, Treatment of 204 

Shearing Sheep 158 

* Shed for Pasture 32 

* " Mr. Geo. Grant's 53 

* " Mr. Shaw's 54 

Sheep, Census of, in U.S.'50,'60,'T0.167 

" When a Lamb Becomes a. . . 45 
Shelter, Effect of, on Consumption 
of Food 67 

* Shropshire Sheep, Description of .112 
Silesian Merino, Description of ther32 

* Skeleton of the Sheep 169 

* Skin, Structure of the 143 

Soils Suitable for Pastures 12 

Sorting Wool 165 

* Southdown Sheep, Description of 114 

" -Merino, Description 

of the 135 

Spanish Merino, Description of thel27 

Spleen, Functions of the 185 

Sprains 245 

Stimulants, Use of 190 

* Stomach of the Sheep 180 

" Foreign Bodies in the.. 200 

Stretches, Treatment of 195 

Summer Management of Sheep 11 

* Table for Tying Wool 162 

* Tape-Worms 228 

Tagging and Trimming Sheep 158 



* Teeth, Growth of the 45-171 

* Tick, the Sheep 233 

Ticks, Dip for 47 

* Trochar and Canula 194 

Turnips, Cultivation of 24 

" Folding Sheep Upon 25 

" for Winter Feeding 24 

Urinary Canal, Sediment in the 214 

'• Organs, Functions of the. 185 

Uterus, Inversion of .242 

Urine, Analysis of Ash of 15 

Virginia Sheep 91 

* Washing Sheep 155 

Water, Necessity of 21 

" Quality of 21 

* Welsh Mountain Sheep, Descrip- 
tion of the 125 

Western Plains, Value of, for Sheep 

Pastures 19 

Winds, Eflects of, on Condition... 22 

Winter Management of Sheep 49 

Womb, Inversion of 242 

Wool, Break in 21 

' ' Classification of 148 

" Composition of . . . 156 

* " How to Judge of 150-153 

* " Packing 161 

" Prices of 149 

" Quality of, a Test of 

Health 15-150 

" " "■ Merino 99 

♦' Sorting 165 

" Structureof 142 

" Value of Imports of 10 

* " Washing of 155 

" World's Production of 165 

* Worms, the Bladder 224 

* "■ in the Brain 226 

" in the Bronchial Tubes . . 223 

* " in the Intestines 229 

* " in the Lungs 223 

Wounds 244 

Yarrow, Description of 18 

Yolk in Wool 99 

" Composition of ..147 



The items marked witli a * are illustrated. 









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